1 Introduction
The exterior space of large-scale public buildings constitutes a crucial part of both the human living environment and the urban built environment. Such spaces are typically regarded as fixed outcomes―open areas with explicitly defined public service functions (
Wang, 2025). For a long time, however, owing to their dependent relationships and the specificity of scale, structural issues in exterior space have received less attention than formal concerns. This contrasts with the current emphasis on structural optimization in urban governance, resulting in a decline in quality, value, and sustainability, and ultimately causing exterior space to lose spatial vitality.
Some urban sociologists have proposed strategies for facilitating the mutual transformation of exterior and interior spaces. A classic example is
Ashihara (1985)’s concept of “reverse space,” described in
Exterior Design in Architecture, which suggests that architects consider the entire site as a single building to foster vibrant spatial practices. In
Life Between Buildings,
Gehl (2011) characterizes the spatial structures generated by such practices as positive effect processes, thereby inspiring further investigation into the relationship between exterior space vitality and spatial structures.
Vitality is a multidimensional concept and a conscious judgment used to describe the life-like characteristics of a place. Numerous studies have characterized spatial vitality through secondary classifications of vitality phenomena. For instance, street vitality is measured by activity density (
Wu et al., 2021;
Liu, 2022); overall urban vitality is assessed in terms of diversity across activities, time, and space (
Kang et al., 2021); commercial space vitality is captured using multisource trajectory data (
Li et al., 2022); and vitality under abnormal spatiotemporal conditions is evaluated through indicators of urban resilience and public safety (
Sun and Ren, 2022).
However, as key carriers of urban vitality, the exterior spaces of large-scale public buildings exhibit pronounced multi-alienation (Appendix) characteristics. Similar to their interior counterparts, they are linked to public, alienated (non-daily) megastructures and retain a core element of publicness. Yet, to satisfy specific social structures, functional requirements, or control needs, these spaces―following
Rossi (2020) and
Foucault (1999)―often display Introversion, Specificity, Restrictiveness, and Artificiality after the initial transformation. The evolutionary traits of such spatial structures provide the rationale for this study to examine exterior spaces from the perspective of multi-alienation, thereby exploring their vitality value.
Some studies have documented manifestations of multi-alienation in exterior spaces. For example,
Foster+Partners (2024) identified a tendency toward privatization from public behaviors (
Yang and Shang, 2017), while
Rowe (2021), from a realist perspective, examined complex alienation relationships among people, buildings, and cities. Cultural and spatial narratives across regions illustrate a comprehensive, era-defining form of alienation (Appendix), initially proposed by
Lefebvre (1991).
Bhabha (2021) employed post-structuralist methods to extract concepts such as hybridity, mimicry, difference, and ambivalence from contemporary multi-layered intercultural social landscapes.
Mignolo and Walsh (2018) highlighted the positive role of re-existence (alienation) in deconstructing established spatial rules and cognitive orders in Global South settlements, representing a bottom-up approach to asserting belonging.
Marušić (2015) revealed dynamic occupancy mechanisms in humanized exterior spaces through behavioral mapping, and
Huang (2022) documented the transient and vibrant occupation behaviors of Morocco’s Jemaa el-Fnaa Square. Although most studies do not explicitly emphasize the value of multi-alienation, they collectively suggest a correlation between complex alienation structures and spatial vitality (
Lin et al., 2020;
Jiang et al., 2022;
Ye et al., 2024).
Existing classical theories of alienation, environmental evolution, and behavioral scene analysis can account for certain alienation issues and vitality mechanisms; however, notable gaps persist between the structural analysis of space and the broad application of alienation concepts. These limitations have long exacerbated the abstraction, ambiguity, and unidirectionality of spatial research, hindering the development of architectural science. A moderate return to structuralism may help avoid the pitfalls of relativism. Building on previous studies, this paper examines the exterior spaces of large-scale public buildings, identifies multi-alienation structures, and proposes correlation hypotheses. Using an experimental approach, it simplifies and tests complex spatial problems, thereby generalizing design strategies and vitality cores, and aims to provide theoretical support for employing alienation as a positive instrument in spatial production.
2 Related concepts and spatial phenomena
2.1 Alienation and its spatial manifestations
The term “alienation” derives from the Latin alienatio, encompassing otherness, estrangement, and transfer. It typically induces disruptive changes in the form, nature, or structure of entities, manifesting as contrast, opposition, or division. Hegel, in German classical philosophy, used alienation to describe the transformation between spirit and objects, highlighting the dynamic nature of the human world. Marx, through labor alienation, emphasized oppositions in economic, cultural, and everyday life, influencing Lefebvre’s spatial interpretations. In 1974, Lefebvre’s The Production of Space focused on alienation, integrating insights from economics, architecture, and behavioral studies to address societal spatial issues, and its discussion of belonging informed postmodern urban scholars such as
Harvey (2000) and
Zukin (2015).
Space studies grounded in the philosophy of alienation examine its essential nature.
Harvey (2000), employing the theory of time-space compression, analyzes spatial alienation in contemporary contexts, highlighting its fluidity, functionalization, and digitalization, and emphasizes the interconnections among space, social relations, and identity. Building on these insights,
Zukin (2015) explores issues of authenticity under urban culture and consumerism. German sociologist
Rosa (2013), extending the Frankfurt School and integrating Giddens’ theory of disembedding, situates spatial alienation at the core of Beschleunigung und Entfremdung, analyzing its role in modern society and tracing the origins of alienation.
By contrast, critiques of the alienation phenomenon generally fall into two opposing schools. One emphasizes the negative manifestations of alienation in modernist cities, such as the disappearance of sidewalks noted by
Jacobs (2022), single-use spaces, the loss of blocks and urban density, and the disconnection between urban functions and intimate life (
Zhang et al., 2015). Scholars including Georg Simmel and Martin Seligman have summarized these experiences as a sense of powerlessness toward alienated spaces (
Jiang, 2024). Conversely, sociologists, philosophers, psychoanalysts, and psychologists, exemplified by
Fromm (1988), highlight the positive aspects of alienation, viewing it as an evolution of interpersonal relationships in which human productive capacity continuously generates new vitality through spatial practices. Furthermore, a growing number of frontier studies, including research on smart cities and the metaverse, have begun to explore the benefits and corrective mechanisms of alienation.
Facing the theoretical lag, architect
Jiang (2024), in
Conceptual Clarifications of Alienation and Urban Space, systematically outlines the research challenges and spatial value of alienation. He notes that, from a philosophical perspective, alienation is progressive, characteristic of urban life, and manifested in phenomena such as the privatization of public space, community defensiveness, spatial segregation, and social consumption.
2.2 The dimensions of multi-alienation and spatial phenomena
“Multi-alienation” emphasizes the essence and evolution of alienation phenomena, grounded in Marx’s developmental logic of the “negation of the negation.” This process entails successive stages of “alienation,” “de-alienation,” and “new alienation” (
Pan, 2024), paralleling Hegel’s concept of “thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.”
In spatial terms,
Fei (2012) employed the concept of the differential mode of association (Chaxu Geju) to characterize the knowledge systems of social members and their spatial order in traditional dwellings, highlighting a multi-layered structure.
Zukin (2015), using Shanghai’s Tianzifang as a case study, described a regional spatiotemporal evolution with ambiguous boundaries. Originally a street market, Tianzifang was transformed into creative workshops by artists following urban renewal. However, the subsequent emergence of over-commercialization prompted calls to restore the district’s community charm and grassroots character. The multi-alienation embedded in this evolution reflects a broader pattern of comprehensive alienation and points toward a more vibrant social ecology.
Furthermore,
Gerard (2019) contends that the driving force behind spatial alienation lies in the complex spatial practices and the unconscious “sublimation” of the creative class. As a key domain of creative work, spatial production enables practitioners, through processes of “de-alienation” and “new alienation,” to shape a real and meaningful environment for people. Collectively, these discussions highlight the inevitability of spatial alienation and its inherently multi-layered nature.
3 Spatial structure and the evaluation of vitality
3.1 The multi-alienation structure of exterior space
Ashihara (1985), in
Exterior Design in Architecture, discussed a form of positive space―an exterior space deliberately designed to be introverted, functional, delimited, and artificial. This contrasts sharply with the traditional perception of exterior space as outward-facing, open, free, and ecological, and for a time, it served as a canonical reference in spatial design.
Introversion denotes spatial form, emphasizing directionality and boundaries; Specificity highlights functional purpose; Restrictiveness emphasizes rules and order; and Artificiality―frequently used by
Ashihara (1985)―signals that such spaces are distinct from natural environments, intentionally designed to meet human needs (Appendix). The book also warns that one-dimensional reverse design (alienation) can stagnate exterior spaces.
Many studies link spatial positivity to dimensions, perception, and practice.
Chen et al. (2020) argues that introversion carries both functional and psychological significance.
Cai (2018) and
Zhang (2023) note that specific uses and value exchanges give spaces real meaning, often enacted through “occupation.” Scholars such as
Habermas (1991),
Foucault (1999), and
Belina (2006) emphasize the social contributions and civic rights arising from spatial rules, order, and control. Grounded in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Stephen Carr’s needs assessment model, these studies deconstruct space to reveal its multifaceted, dynamic, and constructive nature.
Building on this foundation, this paper identifies four dimensions of interior space in large-scale public buildings: Introversion, Specificity, Restrictiveness, and Artificiality. One-dimensional alienation yields exterior spaces that are outward-facing, universal, free, and ecological, whereas multi-alienation arises in subsequent “reverse” processes (Table 1).
Overall, “multi-” emphasizes the processes of spatial production. Structural equation modeling shows that, compared to overall “mixed” fragmentation and unification, “multi-” highlights order and separation among factors. These structures can be represented by the Second-order and Correlated models in SPSS Amos (Table 2). This inclusiveness allows diverse spaces, activities, or crowds to plausibly coexist―for instance, a mobile breakfast cart at a bus stop, a private classroom in a plaza, street vendors on a pedestrian overpass, a vegetable market under an interchange, a rock band in an underground passage, or a reading corner outside a bank. Such “occupations” disrupt linear thinking, stimulate collective memory or subconscious layers, offer novel experiences, and encourage active engagement, thereby enhancing potential spatial vitality.
3.2 Research objective and vitality evaluation through multi-alienation
The cultural transmission, image formation, and sustainable development of large-scale public buildings depend on vibrant exterior spaces. Based on the hypothesized relationship between spatial vitality and multi-alienation, this study evaluates external characteristics that generate vitality (vitality phenomena) and internal composition (multi-dimensional structures) to distill the core of vitality. Previous research indicates nonlinear relationships between vitality and spatial structures, reflecting the multi-alienation processes inherent in spatial production (Table 3).
4 Research pathway
The research design (Fig. 1) adopts an integrated experimental framework, comprising four parts:
1) Sample selection
Geographic information and field surveys are used to identify large-scale public buildings exhibiting pronounced multi-alienation characteristics and strong spatial vitality.
2) Scenario description
Using a principal component reduction approach, case-specific multi-alienation features and spatial practices are systematically characterized.
3) Scale development and model construction
An evaluation scale is designed via the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP), and a structural equation model is constructed based on the scale results.
4) Correlation validation
Model validity is assessed through goodness-of-fit, construct validity, and composite reliability. A similar weight distribution between external characteristics and internal composition is expected to confirm the hypothesized associations.
Based on this framework, the core of spatial vitality in exterior spaces can be further distilled, offering the potential to develop a generalized framework in future studies.
5 Experimental procedure
5.1 Sample selection
A kernel density analysis of public buildings in Shanghai with clearly defined public attributes was conducted using ArcGIS. Results indicate that high-density areas generally align with the city’s planned central activity zones. The spatial distribution of large-scale public buildings associated with special events, activities, or policies follows a similar pattern (Fig. 2).
This spatial clustering exhibits strong centripetal tendencies, further reinforced by transportation networks, leading to differentiated resource allocation and hierarchical identity recognition. To address spatial justice concerns, Shanghai has implemented policies such as the “15-min living circle” and the expansion of metro ring lines. In recent years, urban activities anchored by landmark buildings as spatial nodes have been promoted through both governmental and civil initiatives, fostering broader identity recognition and enhancing overall urban vitality.
The large-scale public building cluster at Century Square lies at the edge of this high-density area. These buildings constitute a major category of landmark structures: they engage in international, national, city, and regional development while remaining accessible to everyday public life. As such, they provide high-quality samples for studying spatial vitality and multi-alienation (Fig. 3).
5.2 Description of multi-alienation dimensions
Based on preliminary surveys, three sites were selected for observation due to their notable spatial vitality: the Shanghai Science and Technology Museum, the East Branch of the Shanghai Library, and the East Branch of the Shanghai Museum. All three exterior spaces exhibit a basin-like configuration, with differing enclosing elements: the Science and Technology Museum faces government buildings, reflecting disciplinary attributes; the Library faces an open artificial forest, reflecting ecological attributes; and the Museum faces commercial buildings, reflecting commercial attributes (Fig. 4).
The surveys were conducted on weekends in December, March, and August: 1 December 2024 (preliminary observation), 8 December 2024, 1 March 2025, 8 March 2025, and 30 August 2025 (data collection, questionnaire administration, and element analysis). All five dates represent ordinary weekends, which facilitates the generalization of findings on non-daily spatial vitality.
In the second stage, nine student investigators were each assigned to a specific area, covering the entire study sites. Data collection combined the snapshot method and machine-based object recognition. The snapshot method, introduced by
Gehl (2011) in
Life Between Buildings, is a standardized and reliable manual approach that records on-site behaviors and positions, which are then mapped accordingly (
Yan et al., 2023). Machine-based recognition employed a lightweight YOLOv8s model to process photos and videos, generating coordinate maps of people to identify multiple high-vitality spatial scenarios (Fig. 1).
Long-term, non-consecutive observations indicate that high-vitality scenarios typically involve pronounced dynamic occupancy behaviors. These behaviors amplify the internal structure of multi-alienation, producing a distinctive vitality spectrum across the spatial matrix (Fig. 5). Spaces exhibiting three dimensions display stronger vitality than those with one or two, with combinations of Introversion and Specificity being particularly effective. Scenarios showing vitality without multi-alienation are relatively rare, usually limited to areas near mobile vendors occupying open spaces. Scenarios encompassing all four dimensions are uncommon, but their absence contributes to greater differentiation among the remaining scenarios.
These findings indicate a causal relationship between multi-alienation and spatial vitality.
Yan and Xu (
2021,
2023) applied a dimensionality reduction approach based on “efficiency—equity” to identify vitality assessment factors. Here, the method is applied to higher-order indicators of public space spatial vitality and multi-alienation (Table 4). Following
Hampton et al. (2015) and
Salazar-Miranda et al. (2025), who highlight “lingering” as a key vitality measure, quantification focuses on counting individuals exhibiting staying behaviors across dimensions, supplemented by user diversity metrics.
Correlation analysis was conducted using normalized Mutual Information coefficients, which are not limited to linear relationships and are sensitive to latent and complex associations (Table 5). Coefficient values are interpreted as follows: < 0.1, possible independence or no relation; 0.1—0.3, weak or supplementary correlation; 0.3—0.6, moderate correlation, recommended for retention; > 0.6, strong correlation.
5.3 Scale design
Based on behavioral and situational investigations, experts guided respondents in completing the indicator-layer element matrix using the FAHP method (Table 6), with scoring based on the Saaty scale (1, 3, 5, 7, 9) and triangular fuzzy numbers (
Ye et al., 2024;
Liu et al., 2020).
Based on defuzzified weights and expert judgments, the problem distribution was adjusted to a:b:c:d = 3:2:4:3, and an evaluation scale was designed according to the external characteristics (Table 7). Items A1—A3 denote enclosed, exclusive spaces; B1—B2 represent spaces satisfying value-oriented needs; C1—C4 correspond to orderly, secure, and humanized spaces; and D1—D3 indicate spaces alienated from the urban context and everyday life. The scale was constructed under the principle of non-disclosure of purpose, maximizing respondents’ subjectivity along the alienation dimension, minimizing compliance effects, and ensuring the authenticity of the findings.
5.4 Correlation validation
Descriptive statistics (Table 8) were first used to examine the distribution of each variable and confirm the validity of the scale data. The data were then input into a structural equation model, producing an optimized model (Fig. 6) that validated construct validity. Further validation included discriminant validity analysis (Table 9) and standardized regression coefficients (Table 10). The model not only confirms correlations among variables but also supports inference of potential causal relationships.
5.4.1 Descriptive statistics
The survey yielded 251 valid responses across diverse age groups and educational backgrounds, with a gender ratio of approximately 1:1.1. Notably, 86% of respondents were Shanghai residents, providing both regional and metropolitan reference value. No significant correlations were found between gender, age, or education and individual items; these demographics were therefore excluded from subsequent analyses. The 13 items produced a Cronbach’s α of 0.854, indicating good internal consistency. Descriptive statistics show a wide range of total scores and relatively high means. Most items exhibit low kurtosis (flat-topped distributions) and standard deviations ranging from 1.08 to 1.27. All items show negative skewness, indicating that while public perceptions of spatial multi-alienation are diverse, overall preferences cluster toward higher scores (Table 8). Items B1, B2, C4, and E consistently received high ratings, whereas C2 and D2 scored lower and exhibited greater response variability.
5.4.2 Model construction
Given that the Likert-scale items are ordinal data and the sample size exceeds 200, the Asymptotically Distribution-Free (ADF) estimation method was employed. After factor rotation, the model was optimized into a three-factor structure (Fig. 6). The chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio was 1.432, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was 0.042, both indicating good model fit. In the optimized model, dimensions a and b were categorized under Spatiality, and the factor loadings followed a 5:4:3 ratio, closely consistent with the weight assumptions derived from the previous correlation analysis (Table 6).
5.4.3 Model validation
The standardized path coefficients ranged from 0.60 to 0.85, with AVE values above 0.50 and CR values exceeding 0.70. These results confirm significant effects of the latent variables on the observed variables, demonstrating strong convergent validity and composite reliability (Tables 9 and 10).
6 Results analysis
6.1 Correlation
Overall, the item data of the structural equation model are reasonable, and the model structure demonstrates stability. The optimized four higher-order dimensions were further abstracted into three distinct and logically coherent categories: Spatiality, which enhances spatial cognition; Fundamentality, which underpins behavioral processes; and Differentiation, which drives perceptual divergence.
Considering the total scores together with the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis of the items, the general trend suggests that respondents expect spaces to exhibit both multi-alienation transformations and characteristics that clearly distinguish them from everyday life, work, and study environments.
Item E captures the public’s perception of the relationship between the overall quality of large public buildings and their external spaces, and thus serves as a key indicator for evaluating the positivity of external environments. All other items show significant correlations with Item E (p < 0.05). Pearson correlation analysis further reveals positive correlations between Item E and all other items. Among the factors, Fundamentality and Differentiation exhibit strong positive linear correlations, underscoring a collective preference for orderly and nature-accessible external spaces. By contrast, the Spatiality factor displays weaker correlations, which can be attributed to its complex nonlinear associations, reflecting the dynamic, multifaceted, and sometimes contradictory nature of spatial demands (Table 11).
6.2 Prototypes of multi-alienated external spaces and the core of vitality
A vibrant external space is not a fully extroverted, generic, or purely ecological plaza, but rather a multi-dimensional environment shaped through continuous alienation―first by architects in its initial design, and later by users through adaptive practices. In this process, public agency is exercised and space is moderately appropriated on the basis of a shared sense of publicness, enabling external spaces to evolve dynamically and manifest greater vitality.
The weights derived from external feature observations (a:b:c:d = 3:2:4:3) and the coefficients of determination (r2) from internal composition evaluations (a:b:c:d = 2:2:4:3) (Table 11) indicate a general consistency between people’s behaviors and perceptions. The resulting internal order and spatial prototypes, analogous to those of large public buildings, are both anchored in a core of publicness that continuously diffuses and converges outward, forming a concentric spatial configuration (Fig. 7).
This pattern reveals the core of external spatial vitality: dynamic occupancy centered on publicness. At the mesospatial level, it externalizes the current multi-alienation pattern of large public buildings expanding outward. Similar configurations are observable at the macro urban scale (
Schwirian, 2007) and the micro architectural scale (
Fei, 2012), highlighting the complexity and dynamism inherent in spatial evolution processes.
6.3 Vitality characteristics and spatial structure optimization
During the observation and data collection phase, vitality characteristics were analyzed by plotting material features of space along the horizontal axis and alienation-dimension vitality factors along the vertical axis. The following presents a subset of the resulting characteristic value ranges:
6.3.1 Optimization range of flow lines
Flow lines were recorded using symbols such as “I,” “V,” “Y,” “X,” and “*.” The results indicate that scenarios with approximately three paths not only support adequate pedestrian circulation but also preserve spatial introversion (Fig. 8(a)). According to environmental psychologist
Kaplan (1995), a balance among these attributes more effectively elicits positive psychological responses, including perceived safety, pleasure, and exploratory motivation. Conversely, when the number of paths reaches seven, Specificity and Restrictiveness exceed optimal levels, and the circulation network produces a siphoning effect that reduces the introverted stay vitality of the space (Fig. 9).
6.3.2 Optimization range of value exchange space proportion
In most cases, trends in Specificity closely mirror those of Introversion and Restrictiveness in behavioral vitality. However, in value-exchange contexts―such as commercial or educational settings―when the proportion of space ranges between 0.1 and 0.3 or 0.5—0.7 (Fig. 8(b)), Specificity has a pronounced effect on stimulating vitality, exhibiting rapid growth. Beyond a proportion of 0.3, the capacity of orderly design to support vitality stabilizes; similarly, above 0.7, the contribution of Specificity to vitality plateaus (Fig. 10). At this stage, further enhancement of vitality may require alternative design strategies.
6.3.3 Optimization range of blue-green boundary
Ulrich et al. (1991)’
Stress Reduction Theory posits that humans possess a genetic preference for natural environments; however, numerous studies indicate that extensive greening does not necessarily enhance urban vitality (
Fan et al., 2021;
Wu et al., 2024;
Jiang et al., 2024). In contrast, this study observes a significant positive effect from increasing the length of green boundaries. In such scenarios, the physical edges of blue-green spaces serve a disciplinary function while simultaneously signaling usability, thereby eliciting orderly dynamic vitality (Fig. 11)―a phenomenon academically described as affordance cues (
Gibson, 1978). Observations and measurements further indicate that when boundary length exceeds 15 m, vitality associated with Introversion, Specificity, and Artificiality visually overlaps and becomes difficult to distinguish (Fig. 8(c)).
Marušić (2015) similarly found that prolonged active behaviors typically occur within 15 m of the outer edge of greenery, suggesting that the square space defined by these boundaries serves as a critical zone where Artificiality design triggers integrated lingering behaviors.
6.4 Other research prospects
Certain spatial material characteristics exhibit clear correlations with vitality; however, due to limited empirical studies, these relationships remain insufficiently validated. This gap represents a promising avenue for future research on the mechanisms underlying spatial vitality.
(1) Vitality mechanism of large public buildings as environmental context
Large public buildings undeniably impart public characteristics to their external spaces, though this is not clearly reflected in correlations between building proportion and vitality (Table 5). Surveys show that proximity to the venue reduces Artificiality-related vitality (Fig. 12). Nearby greenery is typically more regular, and without strong Artificiality cues, people naturally keep distance to avoid destructive behaviors―a common form of civic self-restraint. Whether vitality in such contexts should rely on Artificiality or other dimensions warrants further research.
(2) Vitality mechanism of large public buildings and surrounding external built environments
The spatial distribution of children and elderly exhibits clear clustering, mainly around the Science Museum and the Library. Unlike the commercial environment outside the Museum, these external spaces feature open public greenery or state institution buildings, reflecting stronger public welfare characteristics. While people avoid aggressive occupation, the built environment fosters shared norms, introversion-based usage habits, and urban landscapes imbued with collective memory. The Science and Technology Museum’s exterior is a popular skating spot for youth, where education programs and government oversight enhance a sense of belonging and security. In contrast, the Museum’s space near offices and commercial zones hosts brand or social events, attracting young and middle-aged elites. The Library’s open “reading forest” integrates interior and exterior architecture and provides all-weather public services, drawing students and middle-aged to elderly visitors. These patterns suggest that the built environment influences spatial vitality and user demographics, though the specific mechanisms require further study.
Overall, external spaces of large public buildings are often situated in city centers, commercial districts, or transportation hubs, where pedestrian flows are complex and surrounding community resources are limited. Rather than promoting steady everyday lingering, spatial designs incorporating varying degrees of Introversion, Specificity, and Restrictiveness more effectively stimulate occasional gatherings or festive activities. These observations support claims such as “artificial hard paving can generate greater spatial vitality than green space” (
Yang, 2018) and “over-commercialization of public spaces may suppress vitality” (
Kouros, 2023).
Building on this foundation, the core of vitality in external spaces of large public buildings can be conceptualized as dynamic “occupation” rooted in publicness. Facilitating appropriate forms of occupation not only enhances vitality but also strengthens citizens’ sense of belonging and identity. Urban spatial policies should thus consider the multi-alienation of external spaces, drawing on the internal order of large public buildings to stimulate publicness-driven occupation. This approach provides a spatial basis for promoting spatial justice while avoiding vague fairness concepts or rights-based spectacle landscapes.
7 Conclusion
Using the external spaces of large public buildings as a case study, this research followed a structured process encompassing correlation hypothesis development, field surveys, structural equation modeling, correlation validation, and the construction of multi-alienation spatial prototypes. It provides a comprehensive structural analysis of multi-alienation and preliminarily determines the weights of its four dimensions, offering a more scientific framework for exploring the relationship between abstract spatial vitality and spatial design.
Despite representing a clear advancement over previous qualitative studies, this research has limitations, primarily in the optimization of value ranges. These include the incomplete and unsystematic characterization of external indicators, limited representativeness of survey participants, and imprecision in the optimized ranges. Future studies should refine curve estimation methods and explore deeper correlation patterns via mutual information analysis, providing more scientifically grounded guidance for practical spatial design.
The concept of “large buildings, small cities” requires architects to integrate urban thinking into architectural design, whereas the “large cities, small buildings” nature of external spaces calls for architectural strategies to reorganize spatial order. As emphasized by Foster + Partners, well-designed public spaces provide multifaceted benefits, including fostering belonging and social cohesion, enhancing health and well-being, reducing crime and antisocial behavior, and offering diverse opportunities for recreation and learning.
Reversal is the movement of the Dao. Throughout history, philosophers, thinkers, and sociologists have explored alienation, marking the emergence of an era of comprehensive alienation. Today, alienation is an unavoidable reality in spatial production. Misinterpretations of theory and an excessive focus on anti-alienation overlook its inherent potential, inadvertently intensifying humanity’s reversal against itself and yielding a passive form of openness and sharing.
Everyday vitality arises from individual energy and the revival of collective spirit; it is the product of a calibrated rhythm of alienation. Accordingly, greater attention should be paid to the coupling of multiple spatiotemporal rhythms, the shaping of familiar and useable spaces, and the encouragement of proactive, open “occupation” behaviors.
Shanghai’s spatial policies place significant emphasis on large public buildings and their surrounding external spaces. The examples presented in this study illustrate how alienated large public buildings can achieve sustainable development through the multi-alienation processes of their external environments. This finding indicates that comprehensive spatial alienation constitutes the underlying fabric of urban life: it does not conflict with citizenship, urban development, or social progress, but rather acts as a latent driving force. These insights may provide guidance for emerging cities seeking to advance people-centered urban development.
2095-2635/2025 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
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