1 Introduction
Chinese charity philosophy boasts a long history, with its origins traceable to the pre-Qin period (from the Paleolithic Age to 221 BCE), when concepts such as “the benevolent love others” (a benevolent person is full of compassion and love) emerged (
Zhou, 2022). Rooted in Confucian benevolence, this charity philosophy underscores care, mutual assistance, and social responsibility (
Tang, 2013). The charity philosophy permeated all social strata, shaped the governance principle of “caring for the people” among scholar-officials and the values of neighborhood mutual assistance among ordinary people, thus promoting the development of both official and civil charitable practices. For a long time, the official charitable practices in China, such as temple-based free porridge distribution, affordable medicine dispensaries, and poorhouses, have been well-known to the public (
Connection, 2020). However, charitable estates, a type of civil charitable organization, attached comparatively limited attention. Rooted in the traditional clan system in China, charitable estates conducted self-governing mutual-relief activities among clan members, which alleviated pressure on official relief mechanisms (
Xing, 1987) to a certain extent. Originated from the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate during the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) (
Qu, 2015), charitable estates boast a history spanning nearly 1000 years. Southern Jiangsu where Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate is located not only has the highest density of charitable estates in China but also boasts the longest―standing tradition of charitable estates (
Zhang, 2013). Funded on clan sources, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu were constructed as composite buildings bearing functions such as education, economic management, housing rental, and clan management. They provided impoverished clan members with free education, financial subsidies, and material aid, thereby mitigating social tensions (
Yin and Li, 2016). Feng Guifen (1809—1874), a Chinese ideologist in the late Qing Dynasty, based on characteristics of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu, put forward the Chinese charity development initiative, that is, “to popularize charitable estates and comprehensively build charity halls” (
Shen, 1961). Such kind of civil self-governing charity practice not only showcases the crisis-response wisdom of traditional Chinese society but also constitutes a unique architectural legacy, and offers vital material for the research on civil charity in China.
Research on charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu began in the 1960s, focusing on clan-owned land relationships (
Mueamatsu, 1966). After that, research focus gradually turned to charitable estate property management (
Bai, 1986) and clan property management systems (
Smith, 1987;
Zurndorfer, 1984). In recent years, research focus has shifted to sociological features of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu, such as social relief functions (
Wang, 2009), clan security forms (
Smith, 2009), and ethical spirit (
Smith and Glahn, 2003). Although previous research has explored the management and operation systems of these charitable estates, the research perspectives remain relatively singular. Moreover, previous research has failed to regard these charitable estates as architectural heritage bearing cultural significance, neglected analysis of their physical spaces and visual evidence, and lacked consideration of their architectural characteristics as well as the interactive relationship between architectural environments, clan systems and social culture. Existing research has long overemphasized case studies of the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate while neglecting comprehensive studies across Southern Jiangsu. In fact, the emergence and continuation of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu were inseparable from their social, economic, and cultural contexts. They not only represented local architectural techniques but also reflected social and cultural aspects in physical spaces. Therefore, the interdisciplinary research on charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu becomes increasingly necessary. To respond this demand, this paper approaches the topic from an architectural perspective, and integrates architecture, sociology and history. By regarding buildings and spaces as primary historical evidence, this paper investigates the evolution of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu, including their site selection, function, spatial layout, structure, and decoration, while analyzing the underlying factors. How does the architectural space of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu serve as a physical carrier for the practice of clan power and the reproduction of cultural ethics? How does it reflect the governance logic of grassroots society amidst historical transformations in China? What are the distinctive features of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu compared to other forms of civil charity?
To address these questions, this study defines the historical “Southern Jiangsu” (encompassing Changzhou Prefecture, Suzhou Prefecture, and Songjiang Prefecture in Chinese history) as the research scope, namely current Changzhou, Wuxi, Suzhou, and Shanghai (south of the Wusong River) in this study. Based on existing research, historical materials such as local gazetteers, clan genealogies, archives, diaries, and newspapers were synthesized in this study to analyze the development of charitable estate of Southern Jiangsu across different periods. Simultaneously, field investigations were conducted on 25 relatively well-preserved charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu, including 16 in Suzhou, 8 in Wuxi, 1 in Changzhou, and 1 in Shanghai (Fig. 1). Over 1550 pieces of image data, including drone photography and mapping, were collected. By scrutinizing local practices, the architectural evolution process of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu was systematically presented in this study, and the profound historical and cultural contexts were deciphered, which effectively supplements existing research on charitable estate in Southern Jiangsu and civil charity philosophy in China.
2 The Song Dynasty: the inception of clan charity and the construction of ethical space
In the early Northern Song Dynasty, as the prolonged warfare among separatist regimes had just subsided, the traditional clan system was in urgent need of restoration after collapse (
He et al., 2017). Simultaneously, the war made it difficult for the government to conduct large-scale land division, leading to the land management policies of “no establishment of land system” and “no restriction on land annexation”
† (
Bao and Wu, 2006). Lands were freely traded, private landholdings of scholar-officials increased, and wealth disparity within clans became pronounced. The scholar-officials urgently needed to reorganize clan assets and redistribute them rationally to rebuild clan order and maintain clan influence. Against this background, in 1049, a distinguished official of the Northern Song Dynasty, Fan Zhongyan (989—1052) established the first charitable estate, the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate, in his hometown of Suzhou.
The Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate was situated adjacent to residential areas on the east and west, and bordered the Fan Clan’s manor on the north. This layout facilitated management and relief of Fan Clan members. The site was embedded within the living sphere of Fan Clan, which confined charitable activities within bloodline-defined geographical boundaries. This “clan-territorialized” space established an ethical principle that assistance was an exclusive privilege for clan members. The buildings were constructed along the river, which ingeniously utilized the flowing watercourse as a natural anti-theft barrier, enabled convenient water transportation and water supply, and echoed the traditional ecological ethic of “harmonizing with the advantages of nature”.
To formalize management and operation of the charitable estate, Fan Zhongyan formulated the
Thirteen Rules for the Charitable Estates (
Kobayashi, 2001;
Lu and Huang, 2018), specifically stipulating that the relief scope of Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate covered all members of Fan Clan regardless of wealth or social status. The relief included food provisions, clothing subsidy, wedding subsidy, funeral subsidy, and imperial examination subsidy (Fig. 2). In addition, the charitable estate offered charitable schools, temporary housing, and loans, which addressed almost all practical needs of clan members in their daily lives. Fan Zhongyan selected respected elders within the clan to oversee affairs and administer members relying on their clan prestige.
To meet these needs, the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate was designed as a multi-purpose complex encompassing charitable residences, charitable schools, warehouses, charitable fields and ancestral halls (Fig. 3). Charitable residences functioned as welfare housings, providing temporary residences for impoverished clan members. Warehouses were used to store grain, goods, and funds. These two maintained basic subsistence and reduced population outflow. Charitable schools (Suihantang) were venues where the clan hired qualified teachers to provide free education to clan youth. By encouraging imperial examinations, the power reproduction cycle of “education ‒ imperial examinations ‒ official career ‒ nurturing the clan” was achieved, thus stabilizing clan status and expanding influence. Charitable fields were extensive in area but physically separate from estate buildings. Any capable clan member could contribute funds to purchase land as charitable fields which were managed by the charitable estate. Charitable fields were cultivated by tenant farmers (non-Fan clan tenant farmers), with revenue funding relief (
Li, 2015). Charitable fields served as the economic foundation and revenue source for the charitable estate, enabling it to break free from reliance on external relief and establish an endogenous economic cycle. Ancestral halls served as the venue for worshiping ancestors, where regular sacrificial ceremonies were held. All aid recipients (except women and persons with disabilities) were required to participate, thereby emphasizing clan discipline through a system of rewards and punishments that regulated members’ behavior and strengthened clan ties. Ancestral halls also functioned as the repository and editorial office for clan genealogies. Clan genealogies served as the primary basis for determining aid eligibility. Exclusion from the genealogy was a powerful means of enforcing behavioral norms among clan members. Although the ancestral hall was not a site for charity activities, all charity activities were preconditioned on clan affiliation. Thus, the ancestral hall served as the overall control role, demonstrating that clan ethics was the core for operation of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu.
The design of the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate fundamentally defined three core functions of buildings of charitable estates: providing material relief, offering compulsory education, and hosting ancestral worship. In the Northern Song Dynasty, when clan structures were disintegrating and reorganization was desperately needed, the Fan Clan under the leadership of Fan Zhongyan, consolidated the clan into a multi-purpose architectural complex. This move was in line with the long-held ideals of traditional scholar-gentry of fostering and educating clan members.
The spatial layout of Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate followed a “east-middle-west” parallel layout (Fig. 4). The eastern route featured an independent entrance to the ancestral hall, comprising the Fan Zhongyan Memorial Hall (established in the tenth year of the Xianchun period of the Southern Song Dynasty, 1274) and the Ancestral hall (Zhonghoutang). The middle route consisted of the main entrance, the gatehouse, and the Charitable school (Suihantang) in sequence. The western route, connecting to the middle route, housed charitable residences and other functional spaces. The functions of these three routes clearly embodied the three major purposes of the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate “education, relief, and ancestral worship”. Such a spatial layout integrated clan education with ancestral worship, embodying the fundamental ritual order of “education-worship-virtue” and aligning with the residential ethic of “living clustered as kin while collectively upholding ancestral teachings”. Ancestral hall (Zhonghoutang) occupied the climax of the overall spatial sequence, which reflected the importance of spaces embodying clan etiquette system and highlighting the core status of patriarchal rites as a foundation. It also aligned with the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate’s emphasis on regulating clan relief efforts. During this period, the ancestral halls occupied the central position in the spatial sequence, yet their physical footprint did not substantially differ from other architectural spaces. Their prominence was achieved solely through strategic location in the sequence. In terms of spatial order, the distinct east-west zoning and independent entrance established on the eastern route to the ancestral hall, avoided the intersection of worship activities with daily relief routes, which reflected a spatial order design of “separation of the sacred from the mundane” and underscored the Fan Clan’s reverence for the sanctity of rituals.
In terms of architectural decorations, the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate advocated practicality and emphasized “advocating frugality and eschewing extravagance”. The depiction in the Illustrated Explanation of the Sacred Imperial Edict of the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate supporting its members (Fig. 5) clearly shows: outside the hall, commoners are depicted collecting grain rations, engaging in animated conversation and laughter as they move through the space; within the hall, Fan Zhongyan is shown attentively overseeing the distribution of clan welfare, with clan members receiving their allotted provisions under his care; at the rear of the hall lie the storage facilities housing granaries and textiles. The architectural structure in the painting appears simple and straightforward, with robust materials used. The beam frameworks show no obvious decorations, with only slight carvings at the column bases, presenting an overall minimalist aesthetic. In traditional Chinese aesthetics, simplicity, purity, tranquility, plainness, and authenticity are pursued as the highest ideals, advocating the beauty of nature. This simple aesthetic pursuit represents the spatial expression of the Confucian moral concept of “restraining oneself and returning to propriety”. Through restrained architectural language that embodies moral self-discipline, this approach advocates an artistic style of simplicity and understated elegance, deliberately downplaying the ostentation of material wealth. The architecture itself thus becomes a physical manifestation of benevolence and righteousness, ultimately reinforcing the charitable essence of charitable estates in southern Jiangsu in supporting the impoverished and sustaining clan members.
The Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate laid the foundation for the development of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu, and solidified the status of charitable estates as a recognized organization form of charity. Establishing a charitable estate required substantial human and material resources, which were beyond the capacity of ordinary people. Consequently, the number of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu and even nationwide in the Northern Song Dynasty was limited, with only 12 recorded (only 2 in Southern Jiangsu). Among these, 9 were founded by officials. During the Southern Song period (1127—1276), the Jin‒Song Wars forced the Southern Jiangsu region to become the front line of defense against the Jin invaders. Affected by the warfare, existing charitable estates suffered repeated damages, while newly established charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu became fewer in number, only 12 in total. Moreover, their architectural scale and form largely followed the model of the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate.
3 The Yuan and Ming dynasties: consolidation of clan etiquette systems and expansion of spatial functions
During the Yuan Dynasty (1271—1368), although the ruling Mongolians implemented protection policies for charitable estates,
† they remained wary of Han Chinese scholar-officials due to ethnic differences. They suppressed Han clan power economically and politically, resulting in slow development of charitable estates. Although the distribution scope of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu expanded to include Shanghai during this period (
Fang, 1991;
Gu et al., 1983), only 17 new charitable estates were established in total (
Shen, 2009).
In the early Ming Dynasty (1368—1644), the national economy faced difficulties. To stabilize national development, the government implemented the Heavy Taxation System
† in the region south of the Yangtze River, the Li-Jia System,
† and the Village Elder System,
† increasing taxes in the region south of the Yangtze River while suppressing local scholar-officials (
Li and Fang, 2024). This caused stagnation in development of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu. After the mid-Ming period, commercial economic development exacerbated wealth gaps between social classes, leading to continuous social conflicts. Exhausted by social management, the government gradually relaxed control over scholar-officials in the region south of the Yangtze River, which allowed local scholar-officials to regain the control power over grassroots. Charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu gradually revived, and extended to Wuxi (
Han and Qi, 2011) and Changzhou (
Shi et al., 1991), with 32 new establishments, making the Southern Jiangsu region the national center for charitable estate development (
Li, 2016). During this period, the founders remained predominantly officials with high social status and economic power (18 of 32 were local officials) (
Li, 2016). Compared to the Song Dynasty, a small number of wealthy merchants emerged who emulated the scholar-officials by founding charitable estates to elevate their social status. For example, during the Chongzhen period (1611—1644), Xi of the Dongting Merchant Guild established the Xi Clan’s Taipu Charitable Estate (
Ma, 2006).
The economic operation of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu in the Ming Dynasty relied on agricultural production of charitable fields. Rural areas, blessed with abundant natural resources and vast expanses of land, remained the optimal choice for locations of charitable estates. In addition, most founders of charitable estates adhered to an official-centric ideology and endorsed the “imperial examination ‒ official career ‒ nurturing the clan” model. To facilitate the future development of their clans, the founders of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu during this period placed great emphasis on the surrounding cultural environment when selecting sites for charitable estates. They often chose locations in areas inhabited by prominent families, to enhance the learning opportunities for clan members and increase their chances of passing imperial examinations. For instance, the founder of the Hua Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi was attracted by the reputation of Dangkou Ancient Town, and the prevalence of filial piety culture there. He made acquaintance with the local prominent families, and eventually the Hua Clan became a prominent one in the local area.
To meet the needs of founders and administrators, the architectural functions of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu changed in the Ming Dynasty (Fig. 6). Firstly, during the Ming Dynasty, the primary income of charitable estates was supplemented by commercial trade revenues, in addition to revenues from charitable fields. Consequently, commercial-oriented spaces emerged within charitable estates, including shops, accounting offices, cargo docks, and granaries, which facilitated commodity trading, goods storage, financial management, and transportation, all supporting the economic operations of charitable estates. Secondly, charitable estates established additional basic service facilities such as charitable cemeteries, free ferry, and gate halls. They also undertook infrastructure projects such as bridge and embankment construction to improve local living environments and diversify charity practices. Thirdly, the spatial composition of clan etiquette systems became more elaborate. Charitable estates shifted from providing material support to boosting the spirit of clans and strengthening the core regulatory function of clan etiquette system. Following the “
Great Rites Controversy” during the Jiajing period (1521—1524), a trend of building ancestral halls and compiling genealogies emerged among the common people. Ancestral halls within charitable estate played a more significant role. They also served as venues for grand ceremonies such as the opening of charitable estates and monthly worship services to unite clan members (
Pan and Wang, 2020). To better manage clans, ceremonial gates were erected for charitable estates to emphasize ritual hierarchy, and clan management spaces such as council halls were also included. The council hall was named after the ancestral hall name. It was used for the clan administrators to hold meetings. Matters related to the lease of charitable fields, the management of rented grains, disaster relief, the clan support, the election of charitable estate directors, and personnel adjustments, need to be discussed and announced here. The solemn atmosphere of the council hall inspired decision-makers to make just and credible judgments with reverence, deterred clan members and fostered unity, thereby reinforcing governance over clan members. Furthermore, charitable estate management became more refined, with clearer regulations for asset management and use. Different charitable fields were designated for specific purposes: poverty relief, elderly support, famine preparation, educational assistance (including scholarships), and funding for weddings/funerals, similar to the modern concept of “earmarked funds for specific purpose”.
†The integration of multiple functions led to the formation of spatial layouts such as “front shops, back granaries”, “separate routes for shops and charitable estates”, and “alignment between ancestral halls and charitable estates” in charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu during this period. The “front shops, back granary” layout positioned the entrance and street-facing spaces of the charitable estates for commercial activities, which facilitated external transactions and rent collection. The granaries were typically located at the rear of the architectural axis for long-term storage. For example, the street-facing space of the Hua Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi served as an accounting office and gate hall (with a pawnshop added later in the Qing Dynasty), while the granaries were situated in the courtyard behind the pawnshop (Fig. 7). This spatial layout ensured the security of goods, convenient transaction and transportation, and the privacy of the rear part of the building, which collectively sustained the introspective governance model of the clan.
In the pattern of “separate routes for shops and charitable estates”, the spaces bearing commercial functions were separated from the traditional spaces for relief and management in the charitable estates, and were distributed in a parallel (Fig. 7). Charitable granaries and rent collection were arranged along one route, while ancestral halls, council halls, charitable schools and other facilities were arranged along the central axis, which maintained the ritual pattern of the traditional charitable estates. The two routes were connected by doorways or alleys. This pattern ensured that the commercial functions and the traditional functions of the charitable estates did not interfere with each other. The spatial separation facilitated management and also demonstrated the efforts of founders in maintaining the ritual order of charitable estates. Although commercial profits were used to support clan members, commercial functions were relegated to peripheral or front areas, and commercial activities were “hided” in secondary spaces. This spatial arrangement reflected an ethical compromise: despite relying on commercial income for charitable operations, the estates maintained the Confucian facade of elevating righteousness over profit. Such intentional concealment of commerce was a subtle architectural response to the traditional Chinese disdain for overt mercantilism.
In the “alignment between ancestral halls and charitable estates” layout, charitable function spaces merged with clan management spaces, forming a clan-dominant spatial pattern of “gate hall ‒ council hall ‒ ancestral hall” (Fig. 7). Within such a layout, charitable spaces typically occupied secondary positions in the spatial sequence, the council hall stood at the center of the second or third courtyard, and the ancestral hall permanently occupied the climax position with expanded floor area, serving as the core of layout. This demonstrates that the influence of clan etiquette systems was further strengthened over operations of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu, marking enhanced authority of patriarchal ritual spaces. Such a layout transformed physical space into spiritual authority, and used architectural language to declare that the physical survival of the clan must always be subordinated to the shaping of the spiritual orthodoxy.
Charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu in the Ming Dynasty featured rigorous architectural structures with clear construction sequences. Unlike in previous dynasties, architectural techniques improved significantly along with the increase in the level of productivity. Architectural structures such as the post-and-lintel framework and the column-and-tie wooden framework emerged (
He, 1992), and were extensively employed in charitable estate construction. Materials and dimensions used for these distinct wooden frameworks differed greatly. The post-and-lintel framework was predominantly employed for spaces embodying clan etiquette systems, such as council halls and ancestral halls (Fig. 8). The post-and-lintel framework requiring large amount of materials and having a large span, highlighted the importance of clan etiquette systems with its expansive spatial atmosphere. For instance, the council hall in Hua Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi with three-bay width and expansive interior space was designed with the post-and-lintel framework. Comparatively, the column-and-tie framework was preferred for spaces such as granaries, pawnshops and charitable schools. The column-and-tie framework used fewer materials with dense pillars, thus reducing costs (Fig. 8). While this hybrid approach balanced timber usage, the structural differentiation served not just functional and economic purposes but also spatially mapped clan hierarchies. The authority of clan etiquette system-centered spaces was manifested with grand structures, while service areas were deliberately “demoted” in design, which further reinforced the dominant status of clan etiquette system-centered spaces within charitable estates. During this period, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu maintained restrained decoration, exhibiting the characteristic of “demonstrating virtue through frugality, concealing ritual in structure”. Only a few large-scale charitable estates such as the Hua Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi were designed with minimal painted decorations to wooden beams, with almost no elaborate carvings in wood, brick or stone.
4 The Qing Dynasty: the peak of clan control and the strengthening of spatial etiquette
The Qing Dynasty (1644—1912), under rulers advocating “filial governance” (
Zhou, 2006) and benefiting from stable social conditions, saw the golden age of charitable estate development, with 346 establishments (
Li, 2016), being the highest nationwide. During the Qianlong period (1736—1796), the government enacted laws protecting charitable estates (
Ruskola, 2013). By offering incentives such as official titles or memorial archways,
† coupled with strict penalties for misappropriation of clan property (
Ma et al., 1992), the government encouraged gentry to found more charitable estates. In the late Qing Dynasty, frequent natural disasters and continuous warfare overwhelmed government relief efforts. Authorities strengthened recognition of role of charitable estates in protecting clan assets as real property, even approving charitable estates whose buildings were destroyed in war or whose deeds were lost (
Li and Feng, 1991), thus attempting to ally with gentry in Southern Jiangsu to share governance costs and stabilize society. Although over half of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu were founded by officials, policy incentives drew many wealthy merchants into charitable estate founding. This pioneered a pattern “joint establishment by officials and merchants”. Through founding charitable estates, merchants gained legal protection for wealth while enhancing clan prestige, elevated their traditionally low status under the “stressing agriculture and restraining commerce” system. Moreover, charitable estate founder was no longer exclusively man, women began founding charitable estates. Given the varying wealth foundations of different founders, the scales of charitable estates also differed significantly. Some large-scale charitable estates spanned over 2000 mu (Chinese acre), while smaller ones covered only around 200 mu.
The sites of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu gradually shifted from rural to urban areas in the Qing Dynasty. This shift first occurred in Suzhou. At that time, the urban area of Suzhou Prefecture (now Suzhou) was the most urbanized region in Southern Jiangsu.† Settlement in cities facilitated interactions among people, which was conducive to mutual assistance between officials and merchants. Moreover, rents from shops and properties, as well as profits from industrial and commercial enterprises, far exceeded rural land rents. The educational levels in cities also surpassed those in rural areas, which enhanced the likelihood of clan members achieving success in imperial examinations. Many officials and wealthy merchants settled in Suzhou. For the convenience of management, they build charitable estates near their urban residences. Agricultural production was no longer the sole economic source. The production and trade of commodities such as native banks, rice shops, and silk, as well as the rent profits, provided more diversified economic support for charitable estates. For instance, the Ding Clan of Suzhou founded the Ding Clan’s Jiyang Charitable Estate in Suzhou to support the clan. The operation of the charitable estate relied on the rental income from two market stalls and land rents.
Beyond traditional spaces for relief activities, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu in the Qing Dynasty also incorporated humanistic care and multiple purposes. Specifically, they integrated such functions as sightseeing, guest reception, commemoration and transportation (Fig. 9). Charitable estates incorporated docks for passenger and cargo transportation, small plazas for holding ceremonial activities, memorial archways bestowed by the imperial court to commemorate clan charity, gardens combining guest reception, leisure and scenic viewing, sedan chair halls for servants to await their masters, study rooms for book collections, kitchens providing banquet meals and charitable porridge distribution, etc. Due to diversified economic models, the proportion of commercial buildings within charitable estates gradually increased, and the types of these commercial buildings increasingly diversified. New functional spaces such as cocooneries (
Zhang, 2023), medical halls, workshops and pawnshops emerged, which not only generated economic benefits for the charitable estates but also provided clan members with medical treatment and emergency loan services. It is evident that the functions of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu during the Qing Dynasty underwent significant transformations, evolving from traditional clan relief organizations into composite spaces integrating charity, education, commerce, and social interaction. They upgraded from “charity tools” to core platforms for clan participation in local governance. This transformation indicated the combined influences of economic prosperity, upgrading social demands, and clan transformation. It also demonstrated the shift of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu from closed clan spaces to relatively open public domains. The increased memorial, reception and scenic spaces represented the trend of the imitating the refined tastes of historical literati to showcase the cultural identity and economic power of the elite class. This indirectly reveals that charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu of this period were not merely expressions of charity and clan culture, but potentially served as platforms for elite status display.
Despite the seemingly affluent lifestyle of clan elites, the core of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu in the Qing Dynasty remained clan etiquette system, with control over lower members strengthened. Not only were stricter institutional regulations implemented regarding support for chaste widows and marriage subsidies for clan youths (e.g., denying support to remarried women) (
Bei et al., 1920),
† but ethical control was also reinforced through architectural spatial design. On the one hand, specialized disciplinary spaces such as the detention room at the Hua Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi and the Jiexiao Ancestral Hall at the Pan Clan’s Songlin Charitable Estate in Suzhou served as clan-operated punishment venues. They were purposed for judicial substitution and moral discipline, representing the dual control of clans over physical and spiritual lives of members. On the other hand, to facilitate comprehensive charitable estate management and clan affairs handling, charitable estates such as Zhang Clan’s Charitable Estate and Jiang Clan’s Charitable Estates in Suzhou constructed hall buildings, which expanded the worship and management spaces of ancestral halls. These hall building served multiple functions such as hosting banquets, storing genealogical records, and holding meetings, simultaneously symbolizing clan authority while providing practical utility.
It wasn’t until the late Qing Dynasty, with Western cultural influences following treaty port openings, that the architectural functions under the authoritarian control of patriarchal rites began to undergo certain transformations. Taking education as an example, during the Guangxu period (1905), the abolition of the imperial examination system prompted charitable schools to transition gradually from traditional private academies to modern schools. The “Huai Fen Academy” at the Hua Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi transformed to a modern school; the Huaihai Charitable Estate in Wuxi founded the civil Youxin Primary School; and the Hua Clan’s New Charitable Estate in Wuxi established the Guoyu School. All of these schools incorporated Western educational models, improved educational quality in line with the times to cultivated new talents suitable for the era. A few schools even began to admit female students. In 1902, Hu Yixiu and Hu Yuren of the Hu family in Wuxi, with the support of the charitable estate, founded Hu’s Public School and established a women’s branch, which took the lead in promoting women’s education in Wuxi (
Document and Historical Materials Committee of the CPPCC Wuxi County Committee, Jiangsu Province, 1991). The Hu’s Public School had dormitories with more than sixty rooms to accommodate over a thousand of female students (
East China Military and Administrative Committee Land Reform Committee, 1952). This move demonstrated the adaptive adjustments of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu to social transformations and showcased the farsighted development vision of the gentry in Southern Jiangsu.
Charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu during the Qing Dynasty exhibited significant variations in scale and spatial layout. They could be categorized into small, medium and large scales (Fig. 10). Small-scale charitable estates were constructed in single-row layout, with a building area of approximately 100—450 m2. Comparatively, medium-scale charitable estates featured a two-row layout, covering about 600—800 m2. Large-scale charitable estates marked three-row or four-row layouts, with building areas exceeding 2000 m2. No matter what the scale the charitable estates were in, the ancestral hall consistently occupied the highest ritualistic position, which underscored the paramount spiritual governance of patriarchal rites during this period. In larger charitable estates, the ancestral hall comprised a cluster of multiple buildings, including both main halls and branch halls, which were used to worship various ancestors. For instance, the Pan Clan’s Songlin Charitable Estate in Suzhou featured the main ancestral halls of Guanglu Ancestral Hall, Zhuzheng Ancestral Hall, and Cishi Ancestral Hall, as well as the branch halls such as Jiexiao Ancestral Hall and Xiangxian Ancestral Hall, dedicated to worshiping different groups such as ancestors, chaste women, filial sons, and local sages. In smaller charitable estates, the ancestral halls were mainly used for worshiping ancestors within three generations, with only the function area of memorial hall retained. In single-row layouts, the ancestral hall was positioned at the end of the spatial sequence; in multi-row layouts, the main ancestral hall within the ancestral hall complex was often situated at the center of the central axis, with branch ancestral halls either surrounding it or located at the core positions of other layout axes, which underscored the supreme and sacred status of main ancestral hall. The ancestral hall typically featured three bays (with some extending to five bays), considerable depth dimensions, a total floor area exceeding other structures, and a raised platform taller than all other buildings. The architectural massing emphasized the central status of ancestral hall. As an extension of ancestral hall, the hall building was usually positioned behind it, representing the spatial hierarchy of patriarchal authority. Thus, during this period, the core spatial axis of “gate hall ‒ council hall ‒ ancestral hall ‒ hall building” formed the primary layout of charitable estates. This clearly hierarchical spatial structure reinforced the importance of clan etiquette system as a physical manifestation of strict power organization.
Other functional arrangements were developed around this central axis, following the principle of “distinguishing inner and outer spaces” to maintain overall architectural privacy. Service quarters and granaries were mostly allocated to the end of the secondary axis, while public spaces such as charitable schools, sedan chair halls, and commercial areas were positioned at the front of the spatial axis. Charitable estates typically maintained only one main entrance. Even in the few cases with multiple entrances, these were usually limited to partial public building access points, which were then connected to other spaces via alleys. This design ensured external privacy while maintaining internal connectivity and openness. For example, the Pan Clan’s Songlin Charitable Estate positioned its charitable school in the first three courtyards in the western, to prevent students and external teachers from penetrating deeper into the building.
In terms of architectural structure, there were significant differences between charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu during the Qing Dynasty and those during the Ming Dynasty. Due to improvements in production technology, both building heights and volumes increased significantly. The two-story buildings, particularly two-story hall-buildings, became prevalent. For example, the Miao Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi had both upper and lower floors, with a building depth of seven bays and a two-story brick-wood structure (Fig. 11). Meanwhile, high-specification buildings such as council halls and ancestral halls were additionally provided with flat beam structures, and veranda spaces like the boat awning veranda, the overturned veranda and the citron veranda, thus expanding the indoor useable area and highlighting the grade of the buildings.
During the Qing Dynasty, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu no longer focused solely on practical use. Exquisite decorations began to appear in the architecture. Architectural decoration forms such as architectural paintings, stone carvings, brick carvings, wood carvings, and lime moldings were used to decorate the wooden frameworks, gatehouses, roof ridges, doors, and windows of the buildings (Fig. 12). This was related to the architectural pursuit of intricate and elaborate decorations in the Qing Dynasty, showcasing the exquisite craftsmanship of the era. It was also related to the social trend where the construction of charitable estates was associated with the strength and status of clans. These architectural decorations served as symbolic expressions of Confucian ethics, expressing the virtues of filial piety in household governance and the humanitarian spirit of charitable benevolence, while reflecting the distinctive pursuit of noble character, thereby strengthening the educational function of these spaces. For example, the brick carvings on the inscribed board of the gatehouse with inscriptions like “The Legacy of Benevolence Endures” at the Ding Clan’s Jiyang Charitable Estate in Suzhou and “Harmony Prevails” at the Wang Clan’s Dunyu Charitable Estate in Suzhou implied the grace left by ancestors and emphasized the intergenerational inheritance of clan charity. These inscriptions not only extolled the virtues of ancestors who “nurtured kinship and aided clan members” but also expressed the hope that future generations would “carry forward acts of kindness and uphold moral integrity”. In doing so, they vividly encapsulated the founders’ profound yearning for enduring familial harmony and the perpetuation of charitable traditions within the clan.
Decorations of charitable estates in Qing Dynasty transitioned from the Song‒Ming emphasis on “frugality worship” to “ritual worship”. Despite the rich decorations of buildings of charitable estate during this period, the founders were not extravagant. Most decorations remained concentrated in core spaces such as council halls and ancestral halls. The architectural decorations served as a means to convey power discourse, which further enhanced the status and grandeur of these architectural spaces and demonstrated their dominant position in the realm of architectural expression. For example, the council hall of the Zhang Clan’s Charitable Estate in Suzhou, with three bays in width and a boat awning veranda at the front. The large wooden beam framework, the gable walls with woodcarving decorative motif featuring mountains shrouded in mist and clouds, and other structural parts were all decorated with wood carvings, which were rich in content and featured smooth carving techniques. Exquisite painted murals accentuated the spatial opulence and clan’s financial prowess, and highlighted the ritualistic authority.
5 The republic of China period: the modern transformation of development and the integration of Chinese and Western spaces
In the early Republic of China period, amid political instability, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu became models of local self-governance due to their standardized management and effective relief systems (
Chen 1934)
†, receiving government encouragement (
Fang et al., 2010). However, the traditional land-rent economic foundation of charitable estates suffered severe impacts from industrial-commercial development, compounded by tenant farmer resistance and clan labor surpluses, leading to critical fiscal imbalances (
Li and Cao, 2013). The forceful introduction of Western social ideologies further eroded the kinship-based development environment of charitable estates. With clan decline and increasing numbers of impoverished members becoming unmanageable, many charitable estates were forced to close (
Suzhou Municipal Committee of the CPPCC Cultural and Historical Data Committee, 1990). In addition, social unrest throughout the Republic of China period left local elites with little time or resources to devote to the development of charitable estates. Throughout the Republic of China period, only 33 new charitable estates were established in Southern Jiangsu, and most of them were established before the full outbreak of the Anti-Japanese War (
Yin and Li, 2016).
Founders of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu during the Republic of China period were primarily visionary industrialists and wealthy merchants with substantial economic resources. For example, Lai Renshou, son of Shanghai renowned physician Lai Songlan, continued his father’s legacy by establishing the Lai Clan’s Charitable Estate (
Li, 2016). Furthermore, the management model of these charitable estates shifted from exclusive clan elder control to broader societal participation, reflecting institutional transformation toward pluralistic development. The Zuyin Hall Charitable Estate of the Fu Clan in Shanghai, for instance, established a board of directors comprising clan elites and locally respected figures, which implemented principles of financial transparency and decision-making through council resolutions (
Fu, 1939).
† Responding to diversification of social and economic structures, charitable estates such as the Xiang Charitable Estate of the Hua Clan in Wuxi and Zhuoyuan Charitable Estate in Changzhou pioneered the innovation in capital chain and industrial chain of the charitable estates through modern capital operation forms such as operating entities (
Land Reform Committee of the Administrative Office of Southern Jiangsu People, 1951) and purchasing stocks (
Historical Documents Research Institute of the Shanghai Library, 2001), which disrupted the traditional land-value appreciation system. Simultaneously, influenced by Western charity philosophy, some charitable estates expanded from intra-clan relief to participate in disaster relief and hospital establishment for community welfare. The Yuzhai Charitable Estate in Shanghai annually “allocated funds from 40 % of ‘charitable reserve’” for “various public welfare initiatives including famine relief and flood relief” (
Peng, 2019). During this period, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu boosted the integration of traditional charity philosophy with Western charity philosophy to some extent, which laid the foundation for the development of modern charitable undertakings.
To facilitate the operation of industrial and commercial entities and the education of their descendants, the characteristics regarding site selection of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu in the Republic of China period also changed. Proximity to transportation hubs, industrial and commercial hubs, or missionary schools became a preferred condition. For instance, the Sheng Clan’s Charitable Estate in Changzhou was situated near canal docks, which facilitated material distribution; the Rong Clan and other industrial and commercial families in Wuxi established their charitable estate near textile mills and flour factories to support charitable estate operations; the Yuzhai Charitable Estate in Shanghai was located in the heart of the economic and commercial district. The site selection and construction of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu increasingly focused on interaction with educational and commercial resources, demonstrating a gradually more open posture.
With social transformation and changes in lifestyle, these charitable estates during the Republic of China period adopted more open functional configurations. Some charitable estates introduced industries such as entertainment, catering, and sales, and opened their internal spaces to the public, thereby breaking the traditional insularity of clan compounds. For example, the Liuyuan Charitable Estate in Suzhou opened to the public during the Republic of China period, and the revenue from garden admission tickets was used to subsidize the charitable estate. It allowed theatrical troupes to perform in the garden, and the sale of balloons. Also, it rented out the houses to Yipinxiang Western-style restaurant (
Lu, 2011). Traditional charitable school education gave way to vocational and quality education. Charitable estates established vocational training institutes (
Fang et al., 2010), Western-style primary schools (
Chen and Li, 2011), and spaces such as libraries, natural science laboratories, and medical rooms. Furthermore, many charitable schools began admitting non-clan students and even established girls’ schools. The Ruizhi Chinese-Western charitable school, specially established by the Zeng Clan’s Ruizhi Charitable Estate in Shanghai, aimed to cultivate clan members, and allowed outstanding intelligence from other surnames to study as additional students if there were available vacancies (
Li and Chen, 2019). In 1913, the Rong Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi co-established the “Private Girls’ School for the Public” with a local private girls’ school, later renamed the “Rong’s Girls’ School”, admitting students from across society, offering curricula specifically designed for women, including horticulture, animal husbandry, and medical nursing. This process reconfigured spatial attributes, and weakened patriarchal ritual influence over spatial functions, marking the transition of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu from exclusive clan service to socially public functions.
The transformation of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu towards public functions also influenced the spatial layout and sequence (Fig. 13). On the one hand, urban construction occupied large amounts of land, creating space constraints that made complete adherence to ancestral conventions and traditional layouts difficult. Spatial layouts consequently extended multiple branch pathways, and even developed independent functional zones, resulting in numerous flexible multi-line layouts. For example, Xiang Charitable Estate in Wuxi maintained a primary axis of one pathway with three courtyard complexes, while adding another waterside pathway on the southeast side serving as dock facilities. On the other hand, the increase in social public spaces and the division of multi-functional areas with multiple entrances broke the traditional single and ceremonial axis, thus weakening the core control of clan etiquette systems. For instance, the Pang Clan’s Jusi Charitable Estate in Suzhou, in addition to its main eastern entrance, established a western entrance to provide access to southern garden views. The enhanced public nature of these spaces also signified the weakening influence of clan etiquette systems on charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu during the Republic of China period, marking their gradual transformation from the clan self-relief organizations to charitable organizations oriented towards the public.
The founders of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu embraced emerging trends to demonstrate their upper-class status and social standing. Consequently, these charitable estates developed a “Sino-Western hybrid” style in both architectural structures and decorations. Western building materials such as bricks, stone, cement, and glass began to be extensively used in China, which transformed architectural structures and broke the dominant role of wood in construction. For example, Guoyu Hongmo Primary School of Hua Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi adopted Western-style arched gatehouses built with exposed red brickwork (Fig. 14). The main structures featured brick-wood composites and brick-laid facades with wooden floor and staircase frameworks, being exquisitely crafted and structurally solid. Glass windows replaced traditional wooden casements, which significantly improved indoor lighting.
Architectural decorations juxtaposed Chinese and Western motifs, blending streamlined contours and geometric patterns with traditional Chinese architectural elements to convey cultural integration. In 1920, the Zou Clan of the Zhicheng Charitable Estate in Wuxi constructed the Taibo Library within the charitable school (Yangzheng School, later renamed Taibo Municipal First Primary School) (Fig. 15). The facade of buildings incorporated Western-style linear moldings and arched windows, complemented by Western floral decorations, while the roof retained a Chinese-style hip-and-gable roof. In 1923, the Xue Clan’s Charitable Estate in Wuxi established Lishe Primary School (Fig. 16) (
Zhang, 2008). The gateway of the ceremonial gate was constructed with techniques such as brick carving and grey sculpture to present a Western-style arc-shaped design, and the plain brick wall was accompanied by Western-style pediments. The founders of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu attempted to balance traditional ethics and modern identity through the architectural language of “harmonizing Chinese and Western elements”. This neo-nationalist architectural decoration transcended mere stylistic collage, representing instead a creative transformation of foreign techniques by traditional gentry and even local craftsmen. Fundamentally, it embodied the cultural adaptation strategies employed by traditional clans to preserve identity amidst modernization pressures.
6 Discussion and conclusion
6.1 Evolutionary characteristics and influencing factors of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu
As important civil charitable organizations in China, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu were a cultural symbol formed under the guidance of traditional charity philosophy and patriarchal systems. This study systematically investigates the millennium-long evolution of the charitable estates from the Northern Song Dynasty to the Republic of China Period (960—1949). This evolutionary process represents not only transformations in physical spaces, but more importantly, the dynamic projection of philanthropic ethics and patriarchal authority within architecture. The architectural site selection, functional arrangements, spatial layouts, structures and decorations consistently adapted to national policies, economic transitions, cultural ideologies, and social environments through the developmental logic of “adaptive coexistence and innovative transformation”.
Site selection evolution from bloodline-enclosed to resource-open. The sites transitioned from rural areas adjacent to farmland and bound by kinship ties, to urban centers with open resources, which focused on transportation hubs and commercial-industrial districts, and highlighted the shift from reinforcing clan privileges to integrating social capital.
Functional arrangement evolution from singular relief to governance complex. The functional arrangement expanded from the bloodline-based “charitable fields ‒ ancestral halls ‒ charitable schools” model to a clan governance complex centered on ritual functions while incorporating commerce, public works, logistics, and social spaces, ultimately integrating public functions to form locally-governed organizations with a certain degree of “public charity”.
Spatial organization evolution from ritual-axis authority to decline. The spatial layout evolved from a “relief-education-worship” tripartite layout to hierarchical “gate hall ‒ council hall ‒ ancestral hall ‒ hall building” axes emphasizing patriarchal authority, and ultimately transitioned to a decentralized payout with multiple entrances and independent functional zones that diminished the ceremonial prominence of the central axis.
Structural and decorative evolution from ethical expression to plural narratives. The architectural structure transitioned from hybrid of post-and-lintel framework and column-and-tie framework reflecting hierarchy through material differentiation, to incorporating Western structural elements. Decoration evolved from “advocating frugality and eschewing extravagance” ethics to elaborate ritual-status displays, culminating in Sino-West “collage aesthetics” that preserved Confucian identity while signaling modernity through Western motifs.
Governance model evolution from monopolistic land-dependence to open and flexible economies. The identities of founders shifted from an “elite leadership” monopolized by bureaucrats to “civilian participation” involving industrial and commercial entrepreneurs and women. The governance model shifted from closed kinship-based autonomy to democratized plural governance and public welfare platforms transcending bloodline restrictions. Economic models transitioned from relying on land through tenancy of charitable fields as the economic backbone, emphasizing “agriculture-nurturing-clan” land dependency, to capital reconstruction through economic investment and industrial and commercial operations.
Collectively, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu manifested benevolence superficially while exercising clan control substantively, demonstrating architecture as patriarchy incarnate. While conducting internal clan relief and maintaining patriarchal orthodoxy, these charitable estates continuously deconstructed their inherent insularity under mounting societal pressures. The developmental logic of “adaptive coexistence and innovative transformation” in these charitable estates essentially represented a spatial projection of clan elites’ efforts to negotiate between ethical ideals and pragmatic survival. The primary factors driving this evolution included:
Firstly, the regulation of state policies. Throughout historical development, the state consistently maintained dominant authority over charitable estates. Its policies toward charitable estates were never simple “support” or “restriction”, but rather manifested as an ongoing dynamic negotiation between centralization and local autonomy, forming a state-dominated “limited partnership” that shaped different developmental forms across periods. During politically stable eras, the state supported charitable estate development through legal protections and policy incentives, making them supplements to official social control systems. In turbulent periods such as the late Ming Dynasty, late Qing Dynasty, early Republic of China period, state “support” actually represented reliance on and compromise with local gentry due to national weakness. The state granted official recognition in exchange for their participation in grassroots stabilization. Elites of charitable estates astutely exploited these policy spaces by using charitable estates to expand power through land annexation and commercial monopolies, thereby strengthening autonomy. Yet such “support” had limits. When gentry in Southern Jiangsu grew too powerful, the state imposed controls through increased taxation and gentry suppression to “restrict” their autonomy and consolidate central authority.
Secondly, the driving force of economic structure transformation. In the Song Dynasty, charitable field rentals formed the economic pillar, which emphasized “agriculture-nurturing-clan” land dependency. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the prosperity of the commodity economy in Southern Jiangsu thoroughly reconstructed the economic foundation of traditional charity practices. For instance, Suzhou became the financial center of the region south of the Yangtze River, with countless exchange banks, native banks and pawnshops, over 200 native banks concentrated in Jinchang District alone. Additionally, the rise of the “Dongting Merchant Guild”, one of China’s top ten merchant guilds, brought huge profits from salt and silk industries. Commercial development attracted wealthy merchants to charitable estate construction, which provided diversified funding while breaking bureaucratic monopolies over establishment. During the Republic of China Period, urbanization and warfare turned vast lands fallow. “Four prefectures and one department under Suzhou contained no less than two million mu of wasteland, with Zhenjiang and Suzhou having the most.” Land revenues could no longer sustain operations of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu. Meanwhile, modern economic models further dismantled the traditional land-dependent economic models of charitable estates. Taking Shanghai as an example, foreign-funded banks, Chinese-funded native banks, and stock exchanges dominated capital flows, making it sole financial center and third-largest securities market of Asia. In 1937, the total transaction volume of stock market in Shanghai reached 5.8 billion yuan; by 1941, it had risen to 15.3 billion yuan. The substantial profits of modern economic models provided more flexible and abundant funding sources for charitable estate construction. The Yuzhai Charitable Estate in Shanghai derived 74.6 % of its total assets from stock investments. The restructured economic foundation not only transformed the economic models of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu but also compelled the democratization and opening of governance models.
Thirdly, the development of cultural ideology. The feudal cultural-ideological system in China centered on Confucianism, with patriarchal systems prevailing. The feudal rituals particularly reached the pinnacle of feudal societal norms in Qing Dynasty, providing the essential foundation for clan-ritual-centered development of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu. In the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China period, the infiltration of Western thoughts gradually replaced traditional feudalistic ideologies with emerging liberal thoughts. The public’s understanding became more knowledgeable and scientific, which continuously eroded the sanctity of traditional patriarchal legal systems. Southern Jiangsu, “first to receive new trends”, rapidly adopted new educational ideologies, which promoted modern cultural thought with remarkable progress and inclusiveness. For example, Kuang Fang-Yen Kuan in Shanghai and Jiangnan Naval School, and other modern institutions advocated Western learning while opposing feudal autocracy. This ideological liberation undermined the foundation of internal charity and traditional bloodline restrictions within clans, making them unsustainable and necessitating transformation.
Fourthly, the influence of social environment. Due to changes in the social environment caused by warfare, natural disasters, and particularly frequent conflicts such as the Warlord Era and Taiping Rebellion in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China period, social turmoil intensified and refugee numbers surged dramatically. For example, the Taiping Rebellion caused resident population in Suzhou to plummet from 3.4 million in 1831 to 1.29 million by 1865, with two-thirds of lands in Southern Jiangsu abandoned. The Chinese Shipping List & Advertiser reported: “Currently in Wuxi, Yixing and along Taihu Lake, starving crowds fill the roads, subsisting on wild grasses and tree bark.” To reduce social conflicts and stabilize development, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu were compelled to passively address social disorder, shifting functions from “harmonizing clans” to “relieving society” to ensure survival.
6.2 Comparison between charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu and other charitable practices
Throughout Chinese history, there have been numerous civil charitable practices and organizations, such as Teochew Charity Halls. Teochew Charity Halls mostly evolved from deity temples, centering on deity worship with elaborate architectural decorations emphasizing sacredness. These halls provided public relief including material aid, medical services, coffin donations, and volunteer firefighting, relying on social management. Their funding came from voluntary contributions of gentry and merchants. With the overseas business expansion of the Teochew people, the culture of charitable halls was disseminated to other Asian regions such as Singapore and Malaysia.
Other regions within the East Asian clan culture sphere, such as South Korea, also have charitable practices carried out by clan organizations like the Gyeongju Choe clan. The Choe clan’s charity relied on its own wealth, regulating clan members through six “clan rules”, while providing basic relief to surrounding communities such as porridge distribution and land rentals, with particular emphasis on education through donations that facilitated the establishment of Yeungnam University. The Choe clan constructed granary buildings to store grain and make it available to the impoverished, additionally establishing guest rooms to accommodate visiting community members. The architecture was simple with minimal decoration, serving charitable purposes.
Charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu, Teochew charity halls, and Korea’s Gyeongju Choe clan’s charitable practices were all led by local elites, characterized by spontaneous self-governance. These practices focused on basic material relief, and maintained certain cultural continuities. However, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu were fundamentally institutionalized welfare systems dominated by patriarchal ethics, displaying unique characteristics in their governance systems, economic models, functional integration, spatial narratives, and cultural adaptations.
In governance systems, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu established a “bloodline-ritual” self-governing network through ancestral hall worship and genealogy management, forming a highly systematic intra-clan welfare system. This was distinct from the public accessibility of Teochew charity halls and the community-based mutual aid of Choe clan’s charity. In economic models, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu pioneered the “economy-nurturing-charity” approach, achieving “earmarked funding” through stable industrial income while expanding aid coverage, surpassing both counterparts’ reliance on external donations. In functional integration, unlike the relatively singular spatial compositions of the other two, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu spatially integrated worship, education, economic management and public activities into governance complexes. Moreover, differing from Gyeongju Choe clan’s educational donations, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu institutionalized education as a core function through dedicated charitable school spaces, facilitating long-term clan development via the “education ‒ imperial examination ‒ official career” cycle. In spatial narratives, the architecture of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu centered on clan ritual hierarchies, with ancestral halls as cores, featuring an enclosed layout and strict hierarchy while remaining largely inaccessible to the public. Their decorations “advocating frugality and eschewing extravagance” accentuated the sacredness of patriarchal clan principles, standing in stark contrast to the flamboyant deity-themed decorations of Teochew charitable halls. In cultural adaptation, unlike cross-cultural export of Teochew charitable halls, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu through localized gradual transformation, incorporated modern elements, achieved a functional shift in operational models from clan-based charity to social charity, architecturally integrated Western elements while retaining traditional architectural features, thus maintaining cultural identity. This ability to integrate modern elements while preserving traditional cores propelled the continuous development of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu.
6.3 Limitations of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu
Existing research predominantly considers charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu as exemplary models of clan-support organizations (
Dennerline, 1986;
Li, 2016;
Watson, 1982). Undeniably, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu made certain contributions to civil charity development. However, this study argues that they exhibited tendencies where minority clan elites collectively controlled clan groups to enhance personal power.
At the social level, the establishment of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu aimed to perpetuate clan lineage and maintain collective interests, and preserve the social status of clans through resource monopolies, with emphasis on intra-clan welfare distribution. This inwardly-focused relief system constituted systematic exclusion of lower-class groups by bloodline communities, thereby safeguarding the overall status and resource base of elite-dominated clans.
For clan members, the assistance provided by these charitable estates represented “limited charity” under patriarchal systems. The absolute spatial centrality of ancestral halls reflected how this aid presupposed acceptance of established clan hierarchies where with elites allocated resources and lower members passively received “benefactions”. Beneath this veneer of “benevolence”, these charitable estates became vital tools for clan elites to expand power between state and lower members. As cultural instruments, they weaponized architectural space and economic aid to enforce ethical discipline, deliberately weakening rights of lower members while consolidating control and power. Any activities contradicting the patriarchal system were punished. For instance, the establishment of Jiexiao Ancestral Hall in enshrined models of “chaste widows”, serving to ideologically discipline clan widows. For the special assistance of chaste widows, once a widow receiving assistance expressed the intention to remarry, she would not only be punished for “losing chastity” but also face severe economic penalties, which would deprive her of the right to pursue marital happiness, thereby maintaining the superficial “good reputation” of the clan.
As self-serving mechanisms, elites exploited charitable estates to serve their own interests, expand their privileges, and monopolize resources, thereby compelling impoverished clan members to accept entrenched social stratification. The management regulations of the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate reveal that recipients included households with servants. This blanket assistance disregarding wealth disparities transcended charitable boundaries, effectively safeguarding elite wealth accumulation. Elites employed market manipulation and disaster profiteering to consolidate resources and annex land, ensuring the expansion of their wealth and power. Architecturally, they gradually incorporated non-charitable spaces such as ornamental gardens serving elite interests, alongside ostentatious decorations displaying affluence. Yet socially, clan elites gained prestige and state recognition through clan relief, making charitable estates appear as hypocritical vehicles for perpetuating elite privilege under the guise of charity, obscuring class contradictions.
Moreover, while women constituted major aid recipients, they remained constrained by patriarchal rites. Even when women founded charitable estates in Qing Dynasty, real authority stayed with male elites. For instance, the naming rights of these architectural structures remained under the control of the husband’s clan, while women continued to be excluded from participating in ancestral worship ceremonies. Even when girls’ schools were established, they did not substantially weaken patriarchal rituals, but rather represented adaptive strategies of the patriarchal system under modernization pressures. The curricula focused on “female-appropriate” subjects like horticulture and nursing, repackaging traditional women’s duties as modern skills while perpetuating “feminine virtue” indoctrination. This so-called “female participation” was merely the instrumentalization of women by patriarchal system through benevolent estate spaces, namely using their charitable labor to whitewash patriarchal order.
This study primarily examines historical sources such as local gazetteers, clan genealogies, and clan memoirs and other archival materials emphasizing elite narratives. This may introduce certain limitations to the research perspective, making it difficult to fully capture the voices of grassroots members and female clan members. For example, most female founders were widowed inheritors, mentioned only in passing in records, such as the founder of Guo’en Charitable Estate in Shanghai being recorded simply as wife of Li Honglun. Women’s contributions were obscured. This makes us realize these records may have overly emphasized the charitable aspects of the charitable estates while neglecting their critical role as tools for perpetuating patriarchal systems under clan-based governance.
6.4 Conclusions
The millennial evolution of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu embodies the history of grassroots social governance in China, with the architectural space as the carrier and the “charitable fields - ancestral halls - charitable schools” as the core paradigm. From the ethical prototype of the Fan Clan’s Charitable Estate, to the reinforcement of authority through ritual axes in the Qing Dynasty, and further to the Sino-Western fusion during the Republic of China Period, continuous adjustments of spatial arrangements to adapt to different historical stages reflects a dynamic balance among patriarchal ethics, state power, and economic capital. Furthermore, the heritage value of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu has extended beyond architecture. It marks the rise and decline of a clan-based self-governing welfare model. The economic wisdom of economy to nurture charity and the long-term vision of education to nurture clan not only shaped the historical society of Southern Jiangsu but also offer profound historical insights for contemporary reflections on civil charity, community governance and cultural inheritance.
Today, charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu have reemerged in new civil forms such as “Charitable Foundations of Charitable Estate”. Relaying on the physical structures of the original charitable estates, projects such as the “Charitable Estate Education Assistance Program” and “Charitable Estate Elderly Care Service Center” have been established to support students from poor families and solitary elderly, continuing the traditional spirit of charity. With social development, if the “locality-based” wisdom and charity spirit of charitable estates in Southern Jiangsu can be continuously integrated with contemporary social governance, they may offer new ideas for issues such as social equity, rural mutual aid elderly care, and educational equity. Going beyond static interpretation of historical phenomena, they can also activate the contemporary vitality of cultural heritage, thus potentially fulfilling the original aspiration of Feng Guifen to “popularize the charitable estates and comprehensively build charity halls”.
2095-2635/2025 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
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