An integrated and adaptive spatial module organized around inner courtyard for ash interment chamber in public columbaria: Insights from Nanjing

Abstract

Against the backdrop of urban-rural integrated development and intensifying landuse conflicts, there is an urgent need for constructing public columbaria in China. However, these facilities currently lack effective design paradigms, while interdisciplinary and sectoral barriers impede spatial integration, resulting in fragmented spatial organization. Focusing on the core functional unit―the ash interment chamber―this study analyzes the Public Columbarium Project Series in Jiangning District, Nanjing, and proposes a spatial module centered around an inner courtyard. This module integrates natural and cultural elements while addressing multiple needs, including facility layout, spatial configuration, environmental quality, safety evacuation, and ritual processes. It establishes a coherent multi-scale relationship spanning “niche — shelf unit — building module — site”. Leveraging its high integration efficiency and spatial adaptability, this approach provides an integrated design methodology for public columbaria in high-density urban-rural environments, promoting the future development of compact and vertical ash interment practices.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Public columbarium / Spatial module / Ash interment chamber / Inner courtyard / Nanjing / China

1 Introduction

A columbarium is a high-density, vertically optimized facility for ash interment, featuring systematically arranged niche shelving systems within dedicated ash interment chambers.^† In Western contexts, the term "columbarium" originates from the Latin word Columba (dove), reflecting its spatial typology of compartmentalized niches (Sun, 2021). This architectural prototype can be traced to medieval church catacombs, which are subterranean burial galleries with wall-recessed tombs connected by corridors (Guo, 1986). In China, the evolution of columbaria began with Buddhist ossuary pagodas, where temples enshrined Buddhist relics or housed devotees’ ashes in underground chambers beneath pagodas (Xi, 2023). As Buddhism spread across China, these symbolic pagodas, imbued with religious significance, formed the earliest conceptual foundation for ash storage architecture.

China’s funerary spaces trace their origins to clan-based burial grounds in primitive societies, later evolving into family cemeteries and individual scattered graves (Xi, 2023). By the modern era, reforms in funerary customs were initiated, marking a transition toward modern cemeteries alongside the emergence of corpse cremation practices and ossuary facilities. In the 1950s, to resolve problems of land occupation, resource depletion, and environmental contamination associated with traditional inhumation, China launched a nationwide promotion of cremation as state policy (Chen, 2020).

From 1990s, with the rapid progression of China’s new urbanization and its aging population, land-use conflicts have intensified, further straining land resources through urban and rural cemetery expansion. This issue has become particularly acute in densely populated regions implementing integrated urban-rural development. Both urban and rural burial facilities are confronting intensifying contradictions between land occupation and scattered grave relocation, driven by socioeconomic development and land resource optimization. Existing rural cemeteries have reached saturation points, making their current operation models unsustainable. In response, ecological interment methods and intensive columbarium solutions have become key policy priorities in China’s funeral reform agenda. In Jiangsu Province and Nanjing City, for instance, the 14th Five-Year Plan period (2021—2025)^† mandates comprehensive deployment of public columbaria for permanent ash interment in both urban and rural areas. This policy initiative addresses urgent spatial demands while promoting sustainable ecological funerary systems.

Embedded within China’s distinctive sociopolitical context, public columbaria differ from international counterparts through their governmentled development as essential public welfare facilities, ensuring equitable access and comprehensive spatial distribution. Building upon practical engineering implementations, these facilities demonstrate two defining operational paradigms: Firstly, unlike commercial counterparts, they prioritize maximized spatial efficiency through vertical intensification. Secondly, contrasting with conventional public buildings, they maintain relatively standardized functional configurations, making them more conducive to developing prototypical spatial typologies and modular systems. These modular configurations establish normative benchmarks for design protocols and construction methodologies, offering scalable models for developing essential public welfare infrastructure nationwide.

Currently, China’s columbarium development suffers from a lack of specialized expertise and systematic design guidance. Prevailing facilities predominantly employ rudimentary, function-driven spatial configurations that overlook the experiential and spiritual dimensions of memorialization, ultimately compromising spatial quality and public acceptance. In response, the Code for Design of Public Cemetery and Ashes Depositing Building enacted in 2017^† incorporated dedicated ritual and commemorative spaces to address this gap. However, the current regulatory framework remains primarily applicable to urban contexts while accommodating commercial operational needs, and thus cannot fully serve as a comprehensive reference model for public columbaria in both urban and rural areas.

From an architectural design perspective, the fundamental issue lies in the disciplinary fragmentation between architectural design and specialized engineering fields,^† which has yielded poorly integrated spatial solutions in columbaria. This deficiency manifests in the failure to holistically coordinate ash storage facilities (specifically ash shelving units^†), spatial structures, site environments, mechanical systems, safety evacuation protocols, and ritual processes. Such systemic disconnection ultimately leads to suboptimal utilization of spatial resources.

In response, this study proposes a spatially optimized module tailored to China’s indigenous requirements for columbaria. Grounded in empirical analysis of the Public Columbarium Project Series in Jiangning District, Nanjing, the module simultaneously addresses practical construction demands while demonstrating adaptive capacity for evolving memorial rituals and diverse environmental contexts. This study aims to enhance social acceptance of public columbaria through integration of natural-cultural dual elements and achieving holistic coordination architectural design with engineering systems. To develop a spatial module that responds effectively to both interior and exterior environmental conditions, this study investigates the dual value inner courtyards in terms of functional efficiency and commemorative significance, ultimately forming a courtyard-centered spatial configuration. Simultaneously, integrated component design is applied within the module to consolidate spatial resources and facilitate synthesis between architectural and building engineering systems.

2 Literature review

2.1 Relevant research and practice on columbarium

Columbaria research builds upon established theories and practices in cemetery and funerary architecture. This literature review adopts a China-centric perspective while synthesizing key developments from both international and domestic scholarship.

Compared to regions in Asia, Western countries have pioneered the development of modern cemeteries and funerary architecture. Notable examples include Père-Lachaise Cemetery in France and Mount Auburn Cemetery in the United States, both emerging in the 19th century (Xue, 2023). Research in these contexts is informed by multiple disciplines, including architecture, landscape architecture, urban-rural planning, and the social sciences, leading to the formation of diverse methodologies and comprehensive theoretical frameworks.

The historical development of funerary architecture has been extensively documented. Colvin (1991) traces its development from prehistoric tombs to 19th-century cemeteries, emphasizing changes in both architectural styles and conceptions of the afterlife. Curl (1993) examines funerary settings and commemorative structures prior to the twentieth century, and later expands this inquiry by analyzing the broader role of funerary architecture in stylistic transformations (Curl, 2002). In addressing post-twentieth-century developments, Galfetti (1999) surveys over 60 cemetery projects, while Heathcote (2003) explores modern typologies―such as columbaria―and articulates the design theories underpinning them.

In the domain of cemetery and landscape master planning, Fields (2002) reinterprets traditional cemetery by proposing a paradigm shift tailored to 21st-century North American societal contexts, emphasizing holistic landscape planning. In contrast, Worpole (2003) explores the historical trajectory of cemetery design in Europe and the United States, analyzing how burial landscapes convey evolving views on death, identity, and cultural expression.

Current research on funerary architecture focuses on socio-historical commemorative practices, cemetery planning, and landscape design. However, focused investigations into vertical interment―especially columbarium typologies―remain relatively scarce. For instance, Borbonus (2014) provides a comprehensive analysis of the typological evolution of columbaria, while Hariyono (2015) explores vertical burial solutions and emerging trends in this domain.

In practice, columbaria commonly serve as auxiliary components within larger cemetery or crematorium complexes, as demonstrated by Igualada Cemetery in Spain (Wang and Wang, 2006), Extension of Gubbio Cemetery in Italy (Shang, 2015), and the columbarium at Lakewood Cemetery in the United States, documented in C3 (2013). Rossi’s San Cataldo Cemetery in Italy represents a seminal example of post-mid-20th-century funerary architecture (Liu, 2017), embodying his architectural philosophy (Qing, 2020). Rossi conceives cemeteries as “dwellings for the dead” (Giancipoli, 2015), employing modular niche arrays that function both as interment infrastructure and spatial components. This spatial syntax materializes collective memory through its construction logic (Zhang and Kong, 2021), providing valuable insights for contemporary verticalized ash interment design.

In densely populated East Asian regions facing acute land scarcity, Japan has led the development of modern columbarium architecture through sustained innovation (Gould et al., 2024). Its temple-integrated vertical systems address challenges of urban density and cultural specificity, as demonstrated by Kuhonji Columbarium, Myōenji Muryōkō Columbarium, Shinkyoji Kurazome Columbarium, and Inage Columbarium. Notable recent advancements include Tokyo’s automated card-access columbaria^† (Liu, 2013) and the 2017 Tokyo Vertical Cemetery Competition,^† which reconceptualizes urban memorial spaces within sustainable high-density frameworks (Santos, 2016).

Research on modern Chinese funeral spaces, particularly intensive columbaria, has emerged relatively late. Theoretical studies have explored commemorative expression, architectural environments and landscape design, and multifunctional spatial integration. Specifically, monumentality has been redefined through tomb analyses (Wu, 2009), with symbolic spatial configurations interpreted via spatiality, materiality, and temporality (Wu, 2010). Building on this foundation, an ecological cemetery framework integrating natural and cultural values has been proposed (Li and Li, 2009). Furthermore, multifunctional strategies combining burial typologies with public landscapes (Zhu, 2019) and integrating ash interment systems with green spaces (Gu, 2018) address contemporary challenges. Together, these efforts establish methodological foundations for enhancing ecological sustainability and operational efficiency.

Research on columbaria bifurcates into two main trajectories: one treats them as ancillary components within cemetery complexes, while the other, aligned with this study, considers them as independent architectural typologies. Early studies prioritize basic functionality and humanistic aspects, establishing core functional-humanistic design criteria (Jiang, 2012). Subsequent expansions incorporate spiritual dimensions into design frameworks (Tang, 2016). Liu (2014) connects ritual processes with spatial layouts, while Liu (2017) balances niche density with commemorative quality through scale-dependent monumentality. Typological analyses further elucidate columbarium-environment-user interactions through four archetypal memorial spaces (Xu and Zhu, 2022).

Collectively, these studies provide macro-guidance grounded in nature-integrated design and multifunctional spatial strategies, underpinning methodological approaches for columbarium module development. They establish critical foundations spanning functional-behavioral elements, spatial capacity-density relationships, and commemorative expression.

Design innovations in columbarium remain limited in mainland China. In contrast, regions such as Hong Kong and Taiwan―facing acute land shortages―have implemented high-density ash interment models since the 1970s (Liu et al., 2015). Notable examples include Hong Kong’s Tsuen Wan Columbarium (1987), Diamond Hill Crematorium (2009) and Wo Hop Shek Crematorium (2013), as well as Taiwan’s terrain-adaptive Cherry Orchard Cemetery Corridor (Fieldoffice Architects, 2015). Liu et al. (2015) document Hong Kong’s evolution in columbaria, while Xi (2008) analyzes Taiwan’s facilities with future-oriented insights. The Cherry Orchard Cemetery Corridor, particularly District D, exemplifies landscape-driven commemorative design through its topographically responsive approach (Fieldoffice Architects, 2015). Given shared pressures related to demography, land scarcity, and cultural transition, these precedents offer valuable reference points for mainland China.

Overall, research on columbarium continues to face challenges in addressing the specific socio-spatial conditions of China while meeting multi-dimensional demands for both efficiency and quality.

2.2 Relevant research on architectural modularization and adaptability

Building on current research, architectural modularity and adaptability offer viable strategies to enhance spatial efficiency and adaptive capacity in China’s public columbaria.

In research on architectural modularity, Corbusier’s Dom-Ino System (1914) marks an early modern prototype, promoting spatial flexibility through structural abstraction (Boesiger and Stonorov, 2005; Sun, 2021). By reducing architecture to minimal structural elements, it enables openended spatial configurations (Zhu, 2015). The Amsterdam Orphanage (1960) extends this logic, integrating enclosure and furniture systems to generate modular order (Yao and Lu, 2018; Sun, 2021). Hertzberger advances the concept in the Centraal Beheer Offices (1972), achieving functional adaptability through integrated service-structural modules and material optimization (Heuvel, 1992; Li, 2023; Zhu and Liu, 2012).

In contrast, modular architecture research in China emerges later, largely through adaptation of Western frameworks (Wang, 2013). Studies such as Wang et al. (2013) analyze structural characteristics in student apartments and residential buildings, while Wang (2013) demonstrates spatial optimization in residential planning. These contributions foreground practicality, economic efficiency, and spatial flexibility.

Modularization also underpins adaptability (Yang, 2024). Weeks (1963) proposes adaptive spatial reservation to address long-term functional uncertainty. Hertzberger’s Diagoon House (1970) exemplifies sequential adaptability, combining fixed functional units with flexible zones for evolving use patterns (Shi et al., 2023; Hertzberger, 1991).

Advancing beyond international frameworks, China has developed architectural adaptability research through critical contributions. Peng (2008) emphasizes flexible partitions as tools for spatial connectivity and hierarchical variation. Jia (1993) explores lifecycle-based residential adaptation, while Lyu (2003) formulates climate-responsive strategies.

Together, these studies establish a theoretical foundation for addressing the specific spatial demands of public columbaria in China. Architectural modularity and adaptability thus emerge as crucial frameworks for reconciling efficiency, adaptability, and socio-cultural relevance in future funerary architecture.

2.3 Limitations of previous research

Western funerary space research has established earlier and more systematic frameworks. In contrast, China’s studies, though emergent later, confront compounded complexities from demographic-landscape-funerary pressures. Crucially, Western empirical approaches cannot be fully applicable to China’s unique challenges.

China’s columbarium research demonstrates an evolution from a utilitarian focus (functionality and density) toward multidimensional considerations of commemoration, ritual propriety, and ecological landscape integration. Contemporary studies further pursue spatial quality and user experience enhancement. Nevertheless, systematic investigations into government-guided public columbaria in urban-rural transitional areas remain critically underdeveloped. Modular integration-adaptability synergy, though unexplored in current research on columbarium, offers innovative solutions balancing efficiency and qualitative excellence. However, current columbarium research has yet to substantively explore this combined analytical framework. This study, therefore, establishes an integrated methodology bridging these dimensions.

Crucially, the modularity and adaptability discussed in this study transcend green technologies, prioritizing spatial efficiency and quality. Modularity enhances efficiency through optimal resource utilization within columbaria. Adaptability facilitates flexible spatial adjustments, accommodating diverse demands to improve spatial quality. Their integration yields configurational systems for public columbaria that maximize resource utilization while fulfilling dynamic capacity and environmental requirements.

3 Methodology

3.1 Research framework

To address the identified challenges and research imperatives, this study develops a theoretical framework that synthesizes modular integration and spatial adaptability, proposing a spatial module for China’s public columbaria, characterized by high-efficiency integration and adaptive capacity.

In China, public columbaria constitute essential social welfare infrastructure developed under state guidance. Unlike outdoor cemeteries or commercial columbaria, they prioritize spatial efficiency through optimized use of limited spatial resources. Building upon this foundation, this study broadens the discourse beyond mere spatial optimization to encompass human commemorative experiences and their spatial articulation.

The proposed spatial module is based on the core functional unit of columbaria: the ash interment chamber. Rather than treating it as an isolated room, the spatial module integrates the chamber with an inner courtyard to form a cohesive spatial unit, in which ash interment chambers are organized around the courtyard to facilitate natural light and ventilation. This configuration simultaneously addresses environmental imperatives and enhances experiential quality. Derived from constructional constraints identified in the Public Columbarium Project Series in Nanjing’s Jiangning District, the prototype configuration undergoes scholarly refinement in this study to achieve its finalized modular expression.

The coordination of building component enhances spatial resources utilization, achieving compact spatial organization to improve spatial efficiency (Horden and Richardson, 2008; Xin, 2016). This foundation of integration liberates spatial adaptability, providing the potential for flexible responses to diverse spatial demands (Bao, 1988). Therefore, to achieve the objectives of this study, the theoretical framework of this study comprises two core dimensions, corresponding respectively to the aspects of modular integration and spatial adaptability (Fig. 1). Employing a mixed-methods approach that combines case study, questionnaire survey, and qualitative-quantitative analysis, this study develops the final spatial module. This integrated methodology ensures both operational efficiency and spatial quality, and enables context-responsive adaptation, thereby establishing a scalable model for future implementations.

3.2 Research materials

The research materials comprise two components. First, the spatial dimensions comply with relevant Chinese design codes, establishing baseline standards for scale, capacity and density requirements. Second, the module configuration is derived from the design documentation of the Jiangning District Public Columbarium Project Series in Nanjing, where the authors served as principal designers.

3.2.1 Data sources

In this study, the dimensional data of the spatial module primarily adhere to baseline standards from relevant design codes: At the macro-spatial level, the Code for Design of Public Cemetery and Ashes Depositing Building specifies the maximum allowable floor areas for fire compartments^† and the evacuation distances^† within ash interment chambers, thereby defining the module’s planar limits. At the micro-spatial level, the same code regulates aisle widths and columbarium shelving unit lengths^†, establishing quantifiable guidelines for the internal organization of the spatial module. Regarding capacity and density, the Urban Public Welfare Cemeteries Construction Standard^† recommends the minimum area per ash niche, thus setting deposition density thresholds.

For data not explicitly addressed by codes―such as the precise dimensions of ash niches―this study references prevailing data from actual construction projects.

The integration of regulatory standards with design practices ensures that the proposed spatial module complies with both normative and practical construction requirements.

3.2.2 Case

Located in China’s densely populated Yangtze River Delta, Nanjing’s Jiangning District represents a typical urban-rural interface. In 2019, the district initiated a comprehensive implementation of public columbaria across all townships, establishing facilities at eleven sites, including Guli, Fuguishan, and Guantang (Fig. 2).

Addressing the aforementioned challenges, the project series integrates technical rigor with human-centered design, reconciling functional and ritual requirements. While strictly adhering to mandated design codes, the designs also proactively optimize environmental considerations requirements. To address diverse construction demands and site conditions, the design deliberately integrates versatile spatial organizations for ash interment chambers with adaptive strategies.

Accordingly, this project series forms the empirical foundation for the development and refinement of the spatial module proposed in this study.

3.3 Method

This study employs a case study (Groat, 2013) to develop the spatial module for the ash interment chamber around an inner courtyard in public columbaria. During case analysis, questionnaire surveys and qualitative-quantitative analyses are concurrently applied.

The initial phase conducts morphological analysis of the project series to distill essential spatial prototypes, thereby identifying common denominators and stable recurring features. Subsequently, questionnaire-based validation confirms the necessity of the inner courtyard. Concurrently, qualitative analysis systematically categorizes modular integration and spatial adaptability to establish design strategies across niche-structure-space hierarchies. Finally, quantitative analysis defines precise dimensional parameters to formulate universal modular coordination.

3.3.1 Case study

This study conducts a case analysis based on the selected project series in Nanjing. Through systematic observation and inductive analysis of these materials, stable and recurring characteristics are identified across the cases.

The design for this project series undergoes iterative refinement by incorporating experience from preceding projects, demonstrating a progressive continuity of optimization. Along this evolutionary trajectory, a fundamental spatial configuration paradigm emerges within the ash interment chamber (Fig. 3). This configuration intrinsically integrates with inner courtyards, forming single or multiple courtyard-centered spatial units.

The spatial configuration of this project series reveals persistent challenges (Fig. 4). The relationship between the inner courtyard and the indoor columbarium niches still remains ambiguous. Furthermore, this spatial configuration lacks a clearly defined relationship with human circulation. Discrepancies between spatial planning and circulation systems result in public circulation intersecting columbarium shelving units, disrupting individual commemorative acts requiring privacy. This necessitates the reintegration of aisles with ritual processes. Simultaneously, post-construction installation of manufacturer-defined shelving units generates systemic integration deficiencies at detailed resolutions. Furthermore, despite coordinated corridor-ceiling-conduit relationships, critical equipment such as fire hydrants and dehumidifiers remains spatially disengaged, compromising spatial integrity (Sun, 2021). Through the integrated spatial module, this study advances optimization by resolving these collectively.

3.3.2 Questionnaire survey

This spatial configuration reveals the critical role of inner courtyards. To obtain authentic evaluations of courtyard spaces, we surveyed urban and rural residents, particularly non-experts, comparing traditional ash interment chambers with courtyard-integrated counterparts. Participants were presented with two interior renderings: Scene 1 (a fully enclosed space with artificial lighting only) and Scene 2 (a configuration with a central inner courtyard and natural lighting). Each participant was asked to complete a standardized questionnaire consisting of multiple-choice and open-ended questions. They were instructed to select the image they perceived as more commemorative and offering a better spatial experience, and to briefly explain the reasons for their preference.

The instrument comprised 16 items combining closed-ended (multiple-choice) and open-ended questions. Initial questions collected demographic data (age, residential area type, memorial ritual experience, and familiarity with interment methods). Subsequent items assessed user perception of the two spatial scenes across four key dimensions: commemorative, orientation, temporal perception and overall spatial experience (e.g., “Which space offers a better commemorative ambience?”). Each dimension included a binary-choice item followed by a free-text justification. This combination enabled both quantitative comparison and qualitative insight.

A total of 205 valid responses were obtained (response rate: 96.7%) from 212 invited participants. Respondents spanned four age cohorts: Respondents were distributed across four age groups: 0—17 (1.9%, guided by adults), 18—40 (42.9%), 41—65 (44.9%), and 66 and above (10.2%). Gender information was not collected, as the study focused on general spatial perception and commemorative evaluation, which were not expected to significantly vary by gender. All participation was anonymous and voluntary.^†

The collected responses were analyzed using a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative responses from multiple-choice questions were tabulated and summarized using descriptive statistics, including frequency counts and percentage distributions. Open-ended responses were analyzed using quantitative word frequency analysis. Keywords were extracted and counted across all responses to identify recurring terms that reflect participants’ perceptions. To further enhance clarity, word cloud visualizations were generated, where word size is proportional to frequency, enabling an intuitive understanding of dominant themes. This comprehensive analysis provides empirical evidence for the significant role of the inner courtyard discussed later in this study.

3.3.3 Method for achieving modular integration and spatial adaptability

Ash interment chambers comprise shelving units, structural beams and columns, and facility systems. These components serve distinct functions, but their interrelationships form an integrated whole. This relationship presents two key issues: spatial integration, the coordinated organization of spatial elements―such as shelving units, structural components, and circulation systems―into a cohesive and functionally unified configuration; and technical integration, the systematic incorporation of facility systems―such as plumbing, HVAC, and electrical installations―into the spatial framework to optimize efficiency, maintain spatial coherence, and support operational requirements. These two aspects form the basis for further exploration.

Spatial integration is examined through a hierarchical decomposition of the chamber into four scales: niche, shelving, structure and space. Niches aggregate into shelving units, which align dimensionally with structural grids to cohesive spatial-structural systems. This alignment reinforces shelving solidity, enhances spatial integrity, and supports consistent commemorative expression.

Technical integration focuses on optimizing facility system arrangements. In the Nanjing project series, systems are categorized into plumbing and drainage, HVAC, and electrical systems. Plumbing directs roof rainwater through inner courtyards to external drains and distributes firefighting water from outdoor tanks to hydrants and suppression systems. HVAC comprises post-fire exhaust ducts and dehumidifiers, while electrical systems include lighting, emergency luminaires, and alarms. Integration is achieved by clustering equipment within four designated zones: above suspended ceilings, vertical cavities, shelving niches, and courtyard perimeters (Fig. 5).

Spatial adaptability addresses dynamic capacity demands and varying environmental conditions. The inner courtyard serves as the initial node for expansion, connecting interior shelving spaces with exterior landscapes and allowing ritual circulation to extend outdoors during peak visitation periods, such as Qingming and Spring Festival (Wang, 2012). At the architectural scale, circulation routes link the courtyard with ceremonial halls, creating a composable courtyard—hall complex (Fig. 6). This configuration anchors a hierarchical sequence―from inner courtyard to ceremonial hall to exterior public landscapes―facilitating coordinated indoor—outdoor rituals and multi-scalar integration from building to site (Fig. 7).

4 Modular integration: a basic spatial module for ash interment chamber around inner courtyard

4.1 Integration of the inner courtyard

In this study, the core of modular integration lies in the organization of niches, shelving units, spatial layout, and ritual circulation―all of which are structured around the inner courtyard. The inner courtyard serves as the spatial and organizational nucleus, a role grounded in its dual functional and spiritual significance.

Regarding the functional and physical aspects, columbarium design on maintaining stable environmental conditions to ensure long-term preservation of ashes. Excessive heat, humidity, and direct sunlight―prohibited by Chinese tradition―threaten preservation. To address this, ash interment chambers limit large windows, which can reduce airflowand natural light, causing dim, stagnant spaces. Integrating inner courtyards mitigates these issues by providing diffused daylight and improving ventilation through vents along courtyard edges.

Spiritually, death and mourning are deeply private experiences (Qing, 2015) needing quiet, contemplative spaces. However, collective memorials often occur in noisy, crowded environments that disrupt solitude. According to the questionnaire results, beyond its physical functionality, the inner courtyard also plays a significant and positive spiritual role (Fig. 8). Inner courtyards create introspective spaces that shield mourners from disturbances, channel natural light and offer skyward views serving as subtle orientation cues. This natural light enhances emotional connection more than artificial lighting. Additionally, courtyards connect ash interment chambers with daily life, resembling traditional cemeteries, which provides cultural familiarity and psychological comfort―especially for rural populations―supporting mourning rituals and emotional healing. Spaces organized around the inner courtyard promote spiritual cohesion through introspection and foster emotional convergence that enables collective commemoration, giving ash interment chambers a unique identity.

The dual functional and commemorative value of the inner courtyard establishes it as the core of the spatial module in this study, around which the spatial configuration of the module is developed.

4.2 Spatial configuration of the basic spatial module

Building upon the spatial organizational patterns of the project series and incorporating modular integration and spatial adaptability strategies, this study synthesizes a courtyard-centric spatial module composed of the ash interment chamber and an inner courtyard, aimed at reconciling external environments and reconfiguring internal spatial configurations. The optimization process comprises two key aspects: First, consolidating smaller inner courtyards into a singular central courtyard establishes a unique spatial nucleus, enhancing spatial cohesion and amplifying the holistic sense of place. Second, the circulation path sequences are reorganized around the inner courtyard in alignment with ritual protocols, thereby reinforcing spatial continuity and integrity. Through modular expansion and combinatorial configurations, this framework achieves adaptive spatial synthesis while preserving integrated system coherence.

4.2.1 Planimetric configuration of the basic spatial module

The basic spatial module consists of multiple column grid spaces, featuring two planimetric configurations: four-sided enclosed and three-sided enclosed typologies, with the foursided configuration serving as the most elementary typology.

Under idealized conditions, the central column grid space functions as the inner courtyard, with all surrounding column grids dedicated to shelving units. This arrangement manifests the most essential spatial configuration through its pure geometric articulation (Fig. 9). This configuration intentionally postpones addressing accessibility considerations. Practical implementation necessitates addressing the fundamental issue of ingress. The primary aisle disrupts the enclosed configuration to form entry portals, transforming the adjacent column grid space into an entrance space that facilitates entry sequences. Within this operational framework, shelving unit entrances open bidirectionally toward the entrance from the primary aisle. Consequently, the ash interment chamber module evolves from a geometrically closed form into a recessed configuration featuring interface zones with external spaces. The three-sided enclosed configuration evolves as a derivative of the four-sided prototype, providing enhanced spatial demarcation between interment chambers and ancillary functional areas such as lobbies and ceremonial halls.

The circulation system within the spatial module consists of primary aisles and secondary aisles, serving dual functions of safety evacuation and ritual procession organization. The primary aisle envelops the inner courtyard, connecting two evacuation exits while incorporating courtyard-access openings to extend public ceremonial and emergency evacuation capacities. It interlinks secondary routes between shelving units, forming an integrated circulation sequence that also serves as a transitional buffer zone between the courtyard and shelving spaces. This configuration prevents direct sunlight exposure on ash niches, achieving synergistic coordination of ritual flow, environmental control, and spatial coherence.

Shelving units follow a courtyard-oriented layout: shelves located within column grid spaces adjacent to the inner courtyard face inward, whereas those in diagonal corner grids are aligned with the orientation of adjoining spaces. Shelving layouts employ either linear or enclosed arrangements, with double-sided shelving units occupying interior zones, single-sided units aligning with exterior walls, and courtyard-facing walls remaining unobstructed to preserve visual and luminous connectivity between interior and exterior domains.

4.2.2 Sectional configuration of the basic spatial module

The basic spatial module’s sectional configuration manifests as a two-story pitched roof structure inspired by the traditional Four-Water Convergence Courtyard (Fig. 9), characterized by a double-height central courtyard that facilitates natural lighting and ventilation. The module establishes two distinct interfacial systems. The interior interface comprises walls between shelving units and the inner courtyard, constructed with translucent or semi-translucent materials to enhance luminous permeability and visual continuity. This transparency dissolves spatial boundaries, amplifying users’ perception of spatial wholeness. Conversely, the exterior interface consists of solid walls addressing contextual relationships with the surrounding site.

Through this dual interfacial strategy, the design achieves environmental buffering against external disturbances while maintaining cohesive spatial integrity. The configuration balances natural ventilation and daylighting performance with spatial qualities, fulfilling both technical and experiential requirements.

4.3 Spatial and technical integration of the basic spatial module

4.3.1 Spatial integration of the basic spatial module

The spatial integration of the spatial module materializes through systematic coordination between shelving units, columns, column grids, and walls.

1)　Integration of shelving units with columns and grids: dimensional and scalarity relationships

Within the spatial module, shelving units integrate end panels matching their width to encapsulate adjacent columns. Under single-story or low-rise construction conventions, column cross-sectional dimensions generally remain within double-sided shelving unit widths, allowing full column enclosure. This integration primarily applies to freestanding double-sided shelving units, whereas wall-aligned single-sided units extend the integration scope to incorporate adjacent wall systems.

Column grid spacing is determined by the coordinated integration of shelving unit dimensions (length and width), aisle widths (primary or secondary), and column cross-sections. These parameters govern grid planning through two directional configurations relative to shelving unit orientation: perpendicular to shelving length and parallel to shelving length (Fig. 10). Perpendicular to shelving length, column grid spacing adapts through modular additions or reductions of shelving rows, with row quantities directly correlating to secondary aisle provisions.

Column spacing perpendicular to shelving is adjusted by varying the number of shelving rows, which directly influences the configuration of secondary aisles.

Parallel to shelving length, spacing modulates through proportional adjustments based on ash niche length multiples, enabling precise capacity calibration.

Dimensional data from the project series exemplify key parameters: double-niche units measure 0.83 m in length and 0.40 m in width, with single-niche counterparts at 0.415 m in length with matching 0.40-m widths. Column cross-sections are standardized at 0.50 m, complemented by 0.05-m-thick end panels on shelving units. Prioritizing spatial efficiency, aisle widths adhere to code-mandated minima,^† with primary aisles maintained at 2.40 m and secondary aisles at 1.50 m. This dimensional framework ensures compact spatial organization while satisfying regulatory requirements. Perpendicular to the shelving length, column spacing is determined by the quantity of inter-shelving aisles. Given that such aisles predominantly function as secondary circulation routes, standard column spacing configurations include 4.60 m, 6.90 m, 9.20 m, and 11.50 m. For column spacing parallel to shelving length, dimensional determination bifurcates based on the presence or absence of integrated aisles. In aisle-free configurations, spacing derives exclusively from ash niche quantities, generating modular intervals such as 5.48 m, 6.31 m, 7.14 m, and 7.97 m. When aisles are integrated within a column span, spacing synthesizes niche quantities with code-compliant aisle widths. Spacing derived from combining niche quantity with 1.50-m secondary aisle widths yields modular spans of 6.20 m, 7.03 m, 7.86 m, 8.69 m, and 9.52 m, whereas spacing calculated by integrating niche quantity with 2.40-m primary aisle widths generates spans of 6.67 m, 7.10 m, 7.93 m, 8.76 m, and 9.59 m.

Moreover, compliance with code-mandated maximum indoor egress distances mandates that any point within ash interment chambers shall not exceed 20 m in linear distance to an egress door.^† This requirement imposes constraints on the planimetric dimensions of the spatial modules. In Chinese architectural practices, cost-effective column spacing typically ranges between 6 and 9 m with permissible variances. Through computational analysis of maximum indoor egress distances across within a given enclosure configuration, the optimal planimetric dimensions can be derived under varying operational scenarios (Fig. 11).

2)　Integration between shelving units and walls: height and positional relationships

In compliance with Chinese design codes mandating a minimum clear height of 3.30 m for ash interment chambers,^† spatial optimization requires maximizing shelving tiers within regulatory parameters while maintaining spatial quality. Shelving units are typically designed with a maximum clear height of 3.30 m. When shelving tiers exceed 2.20 m in vertical dimension, auxiliary facilities such as ladders becomes requisite for accessing niches and managing funerary urn placement operations.

Based on empirical data from the project series, shelving units are calculated with a maximum clear height of 3.30 m. Accounting for a 0.15-m base elevation at the shelving foundation, this configuration permits up to nine tiers of niches. The resultant clear height of the ash interment chambers combines shelving dimensions with the ceiling space above, maintaining a deliberate void between shelving tops and suspended ceilings to accommodate future service conduit integration.

For single-sided shelving units along exterior walls, structural beams above may be reconfigured with clerestory windows (Fig. 10) to facilitate natural ventilation and daylighting, establishing distinct spatial characteristics compared to interior double-sided shelving zones.

4.3.2 Technical integration of the basic spatial module

Based on spatial integration, the technical integration of the spatial module is reorganized and supplemented in combination with the spatial hierarchy sequence (Fig. 12).

1)　Integration within the space above the suspended ceiling

The space above the suspended ceiling within the module employs material differentiation to articulate spatial hierarchies between shelving zones and aisles. Grille ceilings demarcate primary aisles, exposed ceilings define secondary routes, while plasterboard ceilings overlay shelving areas, establishing distinct spatial identities through tectonic expression.

Piping and wiring networks follow the hierarchy from public to private realms, branching from primary routes along primary aisles into secondary lines. Equipment such as lighting fixtures, fire alarms, emergency signs, and cameras is integrated into the space above the suspended ceiling, adhering to functional specifications: fire suppression nozzles and cameras protrude slightly from ceiling planes, while lighting layouts synchronize with shelving configurations. Horizontal service conduits extend from primary circulation trunks into subsidiary branches, creating an integrated system that unifies architectural space with building services.

2)　Integration within vertical cavities

Vertical cavities form at angular junctions between orthogonally arranged shelving units, serving as service voids for vertical utility integration. Vertical conduits extend from horizontal trunk lines in ceiling spaces, traversing interstitial gaps between shelving tops and suspended ceilings to enter these cavities. Shelving end panels that encapsulate structural columns similarly create vertical cavities, enabling equivalent technical integrations. These panels embed power outlets, switches, emergency lighting fixtures, fire hydrants, dehumidifiers, and ventilation stacks.

By consolidating service systems within vertical cavities, this strategy achieves maximal infrastructure invisibility, resolving conflicts between technical elements while preserving spatial cohesion.

3)　Integration within shelving units

Practical implementation scenarios necessitate alternative strategies when fire hydrants, dehumidifiers, ventilation stacks, and similar equipment cannot be fully concealed within vertical cavities. This challenge is addressed through the strategic removal of localized niche spaces within shelving units, creating voids for equipment or conduit integration. By embedding these technical elements directly within shelving units, achieving physical and visual continuity between memorial storage functions and building services infrastructure.

4)　Integration along courtyard-perimeter walls

The inner courtyard within the module interfaces directly with external environments, receiving converging rainwater runoff from pitched roof slopes. Drainage from indoor dehumidifiers can also be directed into the courtyard before being collectively discharged into the stormwater system (Sun, 2021). Consequently, drainage infrastructure integrated along courtyard perimeter walls can initially collect roof rainwater and dehumidifier discharge within the courtyard, then route it through subsurface drainage conduits to external perimeter drainage or designated stormwater networks.

5 Spatial adaptability: modular expansion for diverse environments and ritual processes

The expansion of the spatial module can be elaborated from three levels: the expansion of the module itself, multi-dimensional combination, and dynamic adaptive spatial compositing.

5.1 Adaptable expansions of the spatial module itself

The adaptive expansion of the spatial module primarily manifests through outward extension (Fig. 13). For foursided enclosure modules, the entrance space functions as a transitional zone for outward extension, interfacing with ancillary functional spaces such as corridors or lobbies, thereby transforming the inner courtyard into an extended ceremonial courtyard. In three-sided enclosure modules, both the inner courtyard and primary aisle extend outward to connect with corridors or lobbies. The inner courtyard thus operates not only as the commemorative nucleus of the ash interment chamber but also as a mediating buffer between the transparent interface of internal spaces and external environmental conditions.

5.2 Adaptable combinations in multiple dimensions

The adaptive expansion of the spatial module extends into multi-dimensional configurations through horizontal and vertical expansion, forming dual-unit or multi-unit complexes to address diverse scale demands (Fig. 13).

Horizontal expansion operates through two combinatorial modes: longitudinal and transverse. Longitudinal assembly involves mirroring modules to create dual-unit configurations, interconnected by centrally positioned lobbies and ceremonial halls. This cruciform spatial organization radiates from the ceremonial core, with circulation sequences originating at the lobby, progressing to the ceremonial hall, and diverging toward ash interment chambers. Transverse assembly aligns modules laterally through lobbies and covered walkways, forming extended spatial sequences while consolidating ancillary service zones along peripheries.

Vertical expansion employs stacked configurations, typically limited to three stories based on engineering practices. Stairwells and elevator shafts facilitate vertical circulation, with service spaces centralized across levels to optimize operational efficiency.

5.3 Dynamic adaptive spatial compositing

To address dynamic capacity demands, this methodology achieves adaptive integration across scales through coordinated interaction between the spatial module, architectural ensembles, and site systems (Sun, 2023). The resultant modular integration and segregation paradigm enables temporally responsive configurations, utilizing multiscalar ritual circulation hierarchies to accommodate fluctuating visitation patterns across operational phases (Fig. 14).

Under minimal visitation conditions, ritual spaces operate in a streamlined configuration. Memorial activities primarily manifest as decentralized individual observances conducted within ash interment chambers, with the inner courtyard serving as a contemplative nucleus. For emergent small-scale congregational needs, ceremonial practices expand into the courtyard. During moderate visitation periods, ritual programming engages the entire architectural volume. Family-scale ceremonies occupy ceremonial halls, which interconnect with the courtyard to form an integrated ritual core. Corresponding circulation sequences radiate around this nucleus within the architectural confines, contracting ritual boundaries to the building perimeter while external landscapes transition into vieworiented, non-navigable public domains.

During peak visitation periods, collective commemorative ceremonies are organized to manage high-capacity demands. When spatial capacity demands remain within architectural tolerances, public commemorative activities are centralized in ceremonial halls, transmuting these spaces into non-enterable spiritual nuclei. The ceremonial boundaries expand into lobbies and lounges while restricting physical access to the hall itself. For capacity requirements exceeding architectural thresholds, ceremonial domains extend into external landscapes (typically cemetery landscapes), integrating external ambulatories and public plazas to accommodate large-scale commemorative rites. This maximal spatial composite configuration expands ceremonial circulation circuits from internal loops to site-wide sequences, integrating interior-exterior ritual pathways.

This configuration establishes three-tiered ceremonial circulation circuits across architectural and site hierarchies. The minimized ceremonial loop encircling the central ceremonial core within architectural confines. The median sequence traversing ground-level spaces into external commemorative plazas. At the macro scale, the maximized circuit enveloping the entire public memorial landscape. Through composite utilization of these circuits, this triaxial system provides adaptive organizational frameworks for varying capacity demands. Building upon the foundational integration of shelving units, structural units, and spatial units, this methodology achieves macroscale synergy between architectural interiors and site systems.

6 Discussion

Compared to conventional columbaria in China, the spatial organizational patterns of the projects series in Nanjing demonstrate marked advancements. The spatial module developed in this study further refines these innovations, achieving significant improvements across three critical dimensions (Fig. 15): spatial orientation and centrality perception, spatial organization and multi-system integration, and spatial expansion and composite potential. Using conventional columbarium plans as a baseline, this study conducts comparative analyses across these enhancement domains. The three-sided enclosed configuration emerges as the optimal prototype due to its operational flexibility, serving as the representative model for the spatial module.

1)　Enhancement of spatial orientation and centrality perception

Traditional columbaria primarily serve functional placement roles, relying on text-based signage for niche identification while lacking spatial coherence in their material components. The project series introduced an inner courtyard as a spatial core, yet lacked systematic integration. The spatial module resolves this ambiguity by anchoring all spatial elements to a singular courtyard core. Each niche attains defined spatial coordinates within the holistic configuration, cultivating a unified place identity.

2)　Enhancement of spatial organization and multi-system integration

Traditional columbaria lack purposeful spatial hierarchy in circulation design, with shelving layouts dictating movement patterns while neglecting public-private zoning and organizational order. The project series introduced initial spatial stratification through an inner courtyard, achieving basic distinctions between public and private areas but failing to fully integrate interior spaces, aisles, and the courtyard. The spatial module resolves these issues by centering all spatial elements around the courtyard. This core anchors a clear public-to-private gradient, aligning circulation with spatial logic: transient movement concentrates on primary aisles, while contemplative rituals occupy secondary aisles within intimate zones between shelving units. This configuration accommodates both collective ceremonies and individual remembrance, ensuring spatial continuity while unifying spatial and circulatory systems. Concurrently, technical systems (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) follow hierarchical distribution from primary to secondary aisles, achieving multi-system integration of space, circulation, and infrastructure.

3)　Enhancement of spatial expansion and composite potential

In traditional columbaria, ash interment chambers lack defined public-private hierarchies, with entry portals functioning merely as physical doors that fail to establish meaningful interior-exterior spatial relationships. The project series improved this condition by enabling direct access from partial room entries to central public spaces, partially bridging interior and exterior domains. However, ambiguous spatial correspondences between internal and external public areas limited expansion potential. The spatial module transcends these constraints by redefining the entryways to ash interment chambers as multifunctional interfaces bridging core public spaces with external communal zones. Concurrently, the inner courtyard itself becomes an expansion interface between ash interment chambers and external environments. Unlike entry-based connections, courtyard-mediated extensions exhibit greater spatial adaptability while preserving functional autonomy between public and private realms through hierarchical spatial buffers.

The spatial module proposed achieves comprehensive spatial optimization through multidimensional integration of spatial organization, ceremonial circulation, and behavioral perception, while retaining inherent potential for adaptive expansion to address practical design challenges. Characterized by its compact and efficient spatial configuration, the module effectively meets interment requirements in China’s high-density urban and rural contexts. Its diversified expansion strategies further enable versatile applications across diverse environmental conditions.

7 Conclusion

This study concludes that the spatial module organized around an inner courtyard serves as an innovative response to the environmental demands of China’s high-density urban-rural regions, exemplified by the case of Nanjing. Its spatial and technical integration address requirements for high-efficiency and intensive spatial utilization, while its adaptive expansion strategies target the diverse and complex environmental contexts characteristic of Chinese urbanization. This dual approach enables the module to demonstrate adaptable potential across varied site conditions, offering scalable solutions for diverse implementation scenarios.

This spatial module significantly amplifies the critical role of the inner courtyard. As the core feature of the module, the inner courtyard responds to traditional Chinese spatial archetypes while addressing environmental demands through both material and spiritual dimensions. Materially, the courtyard resolves natural lighting and ventilation challenges within the architectural volume, reducing reliance on mechanical systems like air conditioning to achieve economic efficiency and minimize environmental impact on surrounding rural contexts. Natural ventilation proves particularly effective during the Qingming Festival peak visitation period in spring, when temperate conditions ensure comfort without mechanical intervention, though alternative strategies become necessary during extreme summer or winter climates. Spiritually, the courtyard constitutes a reconstructed natural microcosm, establishing a stable spatial anchor for orientation and perception at the heart of the composition. This curated natural element provides psychological solace, enabling dignified engagement with mortality. Thus, the courtyard’s dual material-spiritual significance positions it as the pivotal mediator between human needs and environmental contexts, establishing the module as a holistic architectural response.

The spatial module achieves multi-layered integration across environmental, architectural, interior, and funerary-specific installations (shelving units), aligning and optimizing parameters of scale, orientation, density, and capacity. This systemic approach establishes holistic interconnections between shelving units, structural systems, and spatial configurations, concurrently addressing material storage, safety evacuation, ritual processes, and human sensory engagement. An integrated design methodology coordinates shelving units with architectural frameworks, structural elements, interior systems, and technical installations, while holistically considering lighting, ventilation, fireproofing, moisture control, and other physical environmental and facility requirements.

Building upon the integrated module, the dynamic integration framework addresses diverse site conditions and fluctuating capacity demands through adaptive configurations that respond to differential visitor patterns between routine operations and peak periods, as well as seasonal variations. This approach specifically targets the unique challenge of periodic visitation surges prevalent in China. By establishing multi-scalar ceremonial sequences connecting ash interment chambers (core modules), ceremonial halls (interior spaces), and public landscapes (exterior domains), the design achieves spatial adaptability to multi-contextual site environments.

Ultimately, the basic spatial module for public columbaria achieves comprehensive integration of technical systems and human-centered design principles, establishing multifaceted connections between material technologies and perceptual experiences. Through multi-scalar compositing spanning ash niches, shelving units, architectural systems, and site contexts, the module materializes the complete expression of collective commemorative expression.

The highly integrated and adaptively capable module proposed in this study establishes a design paradigm for public columbaria tailored to China-specific conditions and demands, providing foundational guidance for future ecointensive memorial construction practices. Although the challenges addressed in this study are context-specific and localized, rendering the findings inapplicable to sparsely populated regions or commercially driven columbaria prioritizing spatial luxury, the methodological framework for developing the spatial module serves as a replicable reference for similar research tackling real-world design challenges of this typology. Considering global contexts where columbaria confront diverse environmental and sociocultural realities, this module aims to stimulate broader explorations, inspiring innovative approaches to commemorative architecture that balance ecological sensitivity with spatial efficacy across varied geographic and cultural settings.

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