1 Introduction
“As the origin of meaning, geography can refer to the totality of historical reality, encompassing all components of the whole such as society, economy, culture, and the state” (
Braudel, 1979). The identification of a human cultural community begins with the individual’s connection with the land they inhabit, prompting reflections on personal identity and fostering the creation of epics, quyi, and opera within the community’s linguistics. This process ultimately shapes the vernacular culture of the local region and strengthens the sense of belonging to ethnic groups and lineages (
Smith, 2013). Both Chinese and Western theatres originate from religious rituals, yet present divergent cultural forms as they are rooted in distinct humanistic and geographical environments. Western theatres originated from Dionysian rituals in ancient Greece, where traditional performances centred around the stage “altar” to form semi-circular or elliptical performance-spectating spaces, exemplified by the Theatre of Dionysus, the ancient Greek open-air theatre. Conversely, Chinese operas evolved from temple stages that served as venues of divine worship and public entertainment (Goulan Washe), where traditional opera performances radiated from a central stage into open courtyards, forming a three-sided performance-spectating space, as exemplified by the opera stage courtyard of Zigong’s Xiqinin Guild Hall. The divergent theatrical forms, performance requirements, and viewing patterns shaped distinct spatial configurations of stages in China and the West. To accommodate expanding audiences, Western designs often utilized tiered seating along natural slopes, whereas Chinese approaches employed terraced platforms and stilted elevation structures to form multi-elevation performance-spectating spaces (Table 1).
Amid the rapid transformation of modern society, the erosion of traditional modes of production, lifestyles, and festive rituals has pushed rural cultural heritage into a survival crisis, characterised by rapid degradation and disappearance within evolving social environments. Traditional rural performance-spectating spaces represented by Ba Shu opera stage courtyards and their associated cultural arts are facing multifaceted challenges, including inadequate preservation, destructive restoration practices and widespread misconceptions regarding their value. On one hand, the Ba Shu region boasts abundant opera stage courtyards, which serve as vital folk ritual and music venues and performance-viewing spaces. These courtyards bear intangible cultural heritage, such as opera performances and festive ceremonies, embodying local customs, craftsmanship, and clan cultures, thereby becoming crucial carriers of regional cultural characteristics. On the other hand, Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, as concentrated representatives of traditional rural performance-viewing space heritage, serve as important vehicles for disseminating Chinese traditional cultural values and integral components of world cultural heritage. However, over a thousand examples of opera courtyard heritage have suffered damage to their traditional appearance, with some architectural entities experiencing irreversible harm and nearing collapse. This situation demands immediate research and safeguarding of this architectural heritage.
In this context, the present study focuses on the spatial aspects of Ba Shu stage courtyards, with “Sichuan opera and quyi” as the entry point. Grounded in the research approaches of “cultural dissemination,” “architectural morphology,” and “spatial archetypes,” it integrates multidisciplinary perspectives to achieve the following three primary research objectives:
(1) Through conducting documentary research, field research, and oral interviews regarding Ba Shu stage courtyards, the study aims to systematize their spatial morphology, clarify the cultural-technical contexts underlying these spaces, and reveal that stage courtyard spaces are products of the mutual embedding and construction of “Sichuan opera and quyi” culture and local building techniques. This research provides data support for the dynamic inheritance of local building techniques under China’s comprehensive rural revitalization strategy, offers technical guidance for the construction of characteristic cultural tourism in harmonious villages, and furnishes historical evidence for rural cultural revitalization in the new era.
(2) By technically identifying the planar layouts, facade orders, unit combinations, and space correlations of Ba Shu stage courtyards, the study seeks to generalize their design parameters, elucidate the hierarchical rules governing the typology of these spaces, and provide technical support for the conservation and restoration of Ba Shu stage architectural heritage and the inheritance of quyi cultural heritage. It also seeks to advance the protection and development of stage courtyards along the Shu Roads, implement the construction plan for the Ba Shu Cultural Tourism Corridor, and ultimately support efforts to secure UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site status for the Sichuan Ancient Road cultural route.
(3) Through cultural interpretations of the archetypes, interfaces, fields, and spaces of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, the study endeavours to analyse their typological compositions, clarify the socio-cultural mechanisms behind these spaces, examine the intrinsic connections between Sichuan quyi performances and spatial culture, and accurately grasp the cultural connotations of multi-embedded quyi spaces. It also attempts to uncover the historical facts regarding ethnic interaction, communication, and amalgamation in quyi culture within the Ba Shu region; establish and highlight shared quyi cultural symbols among all ethnic groups; and promote the development of Chinese civilization identity systems.
2 Literature review
Western scholars have a long history of conducting theatre research, which has resulted in significant achievements. For example,
Modern Opera and Theatre by Ike and Wardlow and
Concert Halls and Opera House by Leo Beranek systematically compiled technical drawings of theatre architecture. Wiles examined European theatrical spaces through a cultural—geographical lens and defined performances as spatial practices reflecting specific social structures (
Harrawood, 2004). In comparison, Chinese research on traditional theatre spaces emerged later. Influential works, such as Zhou Yibai’s
A Comprehensive History of Chinese Drama (
Zhou, 1960) and Wei Juxian’s
The Stage of Yuan Dynasty Drama, examined the interplay between stage architecture and theatrical features. Recently, scholars have focused on the historical and technical aspects of space, often using geometric acoustics and simulation software to examine the acoustics of ancient theatres.
Leng et al. (2025) investigated and analysed the sound field characteristics of the stage by employing impulse response measurements and sound quality index evaluations, while the group of
Girón et al. (2021) studied the acoustic characteristics of Roman theatres, encompassing a parametric and spatial description of their sound fields.
Bevilacqua and Tronchin (2024) conducted acoustic simulations to analyse reverberation time, sound field distribution, and clarity in performance-spectating spaces, examining the influence of different performance scenarios on stage acoustics (
Bevilacqua and Iannace, 2023). They also examined the impact of shading structures such as velaria on theatre acoustics (
Alfano et al., 2015) and utilized sound field simulation technology to assist in reconstructing the original forms of theatres (
Bevilacqua et al., 2023). Moreover, comparative studies have used ancient theatre measurement and questionnaire data to explore thermal comfort in theatres (
Ricciardi and Buratti, 2015). The group of Li analysed the spatial characteristics of the ancestral hall theatre and discussed the mechanisms behind the evolution of its performance-spectating space (
Liu and Li, 2023).
Zhang et al. (2024) conducted quantitative research on the reverberation time characteristics of Yue opera’s traditional courtyard theatres, exploring the relationship between the acoustic demands of opera performance and architectural structure. In terms of space history and culture,
Rindel (2025) explored the evolutionary history of ancient Greek theatre architecture, from rectilinear to semicircular design, through acoustic analysis. Meanwhile,
de Cózar et al. (2019) developed lifecycle assessment methods to explore preventive conservation strategies for Roman theatre sites.
Pagounis et al. (2016) employed geographically weighted regression analysis to analyse the spatiotemporal evolution of theatre shapes, while others examined the history of performance from the perspective of theatre spaces and stage technologies (
Nawata and Dethlefs, 2022).
Berardi and Iannace (2020) explored the effects of modern restoration materials on theatre acoustics, and researched reversible interventions based on contemporary uses.
Zhou (1993) discussed the relationship between opera art and theatre architecture, and its evolution. In terms of spatial history and society,
Martin (2007) studied the development of drama and theatres from the ancient Greek and Roman periods from a social customs perspective, while others quantitatively examined the decorative features of marble in Roman theatres, revealing the significance of architectural decorations in Roman socio-cultural contexts (
Taelman et al., 2019).
Wen et al. (2022) integrated social surveys to explore subjective attributes influencing the acoustic quality of Peking Opera theatres.
Luo (2009) examined the characteristics, formation, development, and factors influencing ancient stage architecture from a national perspective. Finally, the group of Cui conducted research on the spatial forms of stage courtyards in the guild buildings of the Ba Shu region, proposing studies on the five vocal tunes in one stage and “five vocal tunes in one body” (
Cui and Qiang, 2009).
In conclusion, existing scholarship grounded in documentary and field research examines traditional performance-spectating space through multidisciplinary and multi-paradigm perspectives, focusing on spatial characteristics, quyi culture, stage acoustics, visual effects of performances, and woodwork decorations. While current research increasingly recognizes the value of numerous yet endangered examples of opera stage heritage in the Ba Shu region, some limitations persist:
(1) Existing studies predominantly focus on compiling preliminary data of opera stage courtyards. However, most research is limited to case descriptions and lacks a holistic perspective for systematically investigating the spatial morphology and structural relationships of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards;
(2) While existing research has addressed the interplay between opera stage courtyards and local beliefs or festivals, it fails to summarize design parameters based on fieldwork or deeply analyse the hierarchical characteristics underlying their spatial configurations;
(3) Inadequate attention has been given to the intrinsic connections between quyi culture and Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, to the systematic typological categorization of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, and to the identification of the socio-cultural mechanisms behind their spatial arrangement.
Consequently, the present study employs ethnographic methods (documentary and field research), case studies, and narrative research, utilizing multi-scale data collection and multi-dimensional hierarchical analysis to systematically investigate the form, function, and culture of traditional rural settlement performance spaces. It attempts to address the following questions:
(1) What constitutes the spatial morphology of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards? How can we clarify the regional cultural and technical background of this morphology, specifically organizing the planer layouts, facade order, unit combinations, and space correlations?
(2) What are the design parameters of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards? How can the hierarchical principles behind these parameters be elucidated, particularly summarizing the courtyards design parameters, opera stage design parameters, and their proportional scale relationships?
(3) What defines the typological composition of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards? How can the socio-cultural mechanisms underlying this composition be deciphered, specifically analysing prototypes and scales, openness and interfaces, capacity and fields, as well as flow and continuity?
3 Materials and methods
3.1 Study design
This study employed a research framework integrating documentary research, field research, oral histories, and statistical analysis (Fig. 1). During the data collection phase, a “documentary-field-oral” evidentiary framework was used to systematically gather foundational data on opera stage courtyards. The “documentary” phase examined local chronicles to explore information on “Sichuan opera and quyi” culture and historical evolution. The “field” phase investigated and measured opera stage courtyards to collect data including structural parameters and proportional dimensions. The “oral” phase interviewed craftsmen and scholars to document regional cultural contexts and folk beliefs. The data analysis phase adopted an “organization-classification-interpretation” hierarchical framework for culturally interpreting spatial configuration relationships of opera stage courtyards. The “organization” stage collated field-survey data to draft parametric drawings and quantify design metrics. The “classification” stage explored typological hierarchies and spatial composition relationships, while the “interpretation” stage clarified the cultural symbolism underpinning spatial configurations.
3.2 Study area and representative research samples
3.2.1 Study area
The study focuses on the Ba Shu region, which refers to the cultural and geographical units that gradually expanded from the early tribal territories―Ba state and Shu state. The area generally encompasses the southern, eastern, central and northern regions of Sichuan as well as the Chongqing area, with the Sichuan Basin at its core. Historically, the Ba Shu cultural region has been a melting pot of diverse cultural, political, and economic exchanges, collectively shaping the distinctive regional features of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, which manifest as features of “diverse integration,” harmonious yet distinct. The flourishing agricultural economy and the prosperity of market towns during the Ming and Qing dynasties directly promoted the dissemination and development of quyi culture. Large-scale migration increased the frequency of public gatherings of ethnic communities in towns and villages, creating an urgent need for quyi cultural activities as an emotional connection (
Li, 2014). The flourishing of “Sichuan opera and quyi” culture has significantly propelled the evolution and refinement of opera stage courtyard form and function. Consequently, opera stage courtyards are predominantly distributed in nodal areas along migration routes (eastern, northern, and southern Sichuan) and regions with thriving commercial culture (Chengdu Plain, Central Sichuan), while being relatively sparse in ethnic minority settlements and underdeveloped areas (Fig. 2). The study selects the following representative research regions: Chengdu Plain (Luo Dai Town), eastern Sichuan (Ciqikou Ancient Town, Zhenyuan Ancient Town, Longxing Ancient Town, Tanghe Ancient Town), central Sichuan hills (Lai Tan Town), northern Sichuan (Enyang Ancient Town, Panshi Town), southern Sichuan (Ziliujing District, Yaoba Ancient Town, Luoquan Ancient Town), and southwestern Sichuan (Luocheng Town). These areas exhibit balanced geographical distribution, encompassing typical geographic units of the Ba Shu region. Their distinct historical, socio-economic, and topographical characteristics guarantee the diversity and representativeness of opera stage courtyard spatial forms and cultural contexts.
3.2.2 Representative research samples
Standard simplification to generate representative research samples is an essential step in all scientific research (
Pawar et al., 2023). This study adopts the following four criteria to identify representative research samples: (1) Value: Samples should possess considerable cultural significance, prioritizing opera stage courtyards in the Ba Shu region that demonstratecultural uniqueness, technical representativeness, and high decorative artistic value, to ensure the universality and generalizability of research conclusions; (2) Time: Samples should have clear historical records, selecting opera stage courtyards constructed and stylistically preserved during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368—1912), with relatively intact preservation and high data accessibility, to guarantee historical authenticity and continuity; (3) Scope: Samples should cover diverse geographical areas within the Ba Shu region to ensure functional types and scale dimensions reflect diversity, meeting the maximum variation principle of purposive sampling to achieve broad representativeness; (4) Form: Samples should exhibit typicality and diversity in structural types and spatial morphology, ensuring they represent the typical forms of regional opera stage courtyards. Based on this criteria, this study selected 23 representative research samples from the aforementioned six representative study areas. The selection process is detailed in Table 2. The samples uniformly cover the Ba Shu region, effectively representing the typical spatial morphology of opera stage courtyards, thereby ensuring the reliability, scientific validity, and generalizability of the research conclusions.
3.3 Data collection
3.3.1 Documentary research
Given that the spatial morphology of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards is deeply embedded in folk construction systems, the study primarily extracted the opera’s cultural background and classical mathematical relationships from local gazetteers, county annals and theatrical works. Specifically, 35 theatrical works were selected, with Youyang Zazu and Taiping Guangji as representative texts, to explore the origins and influences of Sichuan opera culture. In addition, 40 historical texts, with Sichuan Tongzhi serving as a representative text, were consulted to trace the spatial prototypes and adaptability of opera stage courtyards. Furthermore, 28 socio-cultural studies, with Research on Sichuan Folk Culture as a representative text, were analysed to determine the social rituals and folk functions of these stage courtyards. Finally, 23 local gazetteers, such as Qingzhou Fengwuzhi, were selected to reveal regional decorative customs and cultural symbolism associated with stage courtyards. Based on these four categories of literature, combined with iconographic and iconological cultural pathways, this research attempts to uncover the quyi cultural context and cultural symbolic significance of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, reconstructs their historical development trajectory, and employs a “thick description” of cultural details that have a significant impact on the spatial compositional relationships of these performance areas.
3.3.2 Field research
The research team conducted multiple on-site investigations, employing methods of field research and architectural mapping to carry out detailed observation, measurement, and documentation. Geometric data measurements―including design parameters and dimensional proportions―were performed on representative opera stage courtyard spaces within six selected typical regions. They also documented images (photographs and videos) of representative opera stage courtyards in the representative research regions to systematically capture detailed geometric data on their spatial morphology and typological characteristics in the Ba Shu region. Based on spatial composition, performance-spectating characteristics, and audio-visual functions of the stage courtyard, this investigation further subdivided the core research elements into the following categories: a) Planar dimensions (width and depth) of the opera stage; b) Performance interface metrics (height, area, proportional relationships); c) Courtyard volumetric parameters (plan dimensions, height, capacity, platform elevation, ventilation clearance); d) Viewing hall spatial parameters (width, depth, elevation); e) Scenario-specific operational patterns during festivals and folk rituals.
The research team conducted multiple field investigations in the Ba Shu region from 2021 to 2025. Research examples include the opera stage courtyards at Baoshan Palace in Ciqikou (November 2024), and those at Xiqin Guild Hall and Huanhou Palace in Zigong (February 2025). During the on-site field research, the team was divided into three groups: Group 1 employed traditional measurement techniques using steel tape measures and handheld infrared laser rangefinders to comprehensively document spatial dimensions of opera stage courtyards; Group 2 utilized unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to identify courtyard capacity, spatial layout, main hall scale, and roof forms; Group 3 employed photographic and video equipment to document the timber framework dimensions and functional zoning of opera stages, ensuring in-depth excavation of complex interior structures and minute details, as well as accurate restoration and identification of the structural forms, construction details, and folk decorations within the opera stage courtyards. To gather richer and more comprehensive information, this study conducted field investigations at different times to capture various usage scenarios and atmospheres, documenting the regional cultural practices carried out at stage courtyards―such as opera performances, temple fairs, and festival activities. The investigation also recorded how the historical built environment impacted the layout and composition of opera stage courtyards, considering the special geographic and climatic conditions, regional cultural backgrounds, and ethnic and religious customs (
Xu et al., 2024). To ensure data accuracy, the team cross-verified measurement data and conducted supplemental surveys for incomplete or ambiguous records.
3.3.3 Oral history
In social science research, oral history serves as an effective data collection method for deeply exploring personal viewpoints, feelings, opinions, and experiences, surpassing other methods due to its flexibility, interactivity, and personalization (
Sarantakos, 2005). This study employs semi-structured interviews combined with participatory observation to conduct an in-depth holistic investigation into the regional cultural context of opera stage courtyard research samples, achieving interpretative understanding of their spatial and cultural constructs. Firstly, the interview topics were determined: a) the functional evolution process of opera stage courtyards, b) regional cultural practices carried out by opera stage courtyards, c) the regional cultural background of opera stage courtyards, d. the cultural background of Sichuan opera and quyi. Secondly, the interviewees were identified: 32 local residents (including 12 local administrators and 20 local residents), 16 local craftsmen (Master craftsmen engaged in the conservation of traditional architectures such as opera stages), and 13 cultural scholars (9 from higher education institutions, 2 from professional research institutions, and 2 from relevant state-owned enterprises). Thirdly, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the individuals, primarily through face-to-face interviews supplemented by video calls. The interview duration was limited to 20—30 min.
Multiple oral interviews were conducted from 2021 to 2025 to collect personal perspectives on the historical changes, social functions, and cultural significance of opera stage courtyard spaces. For example, interviews with craftsmen in the Southern Sichuan region were conducted in August 2024, and interviews with workers from professional research institutions were conducted in March 2025. To ensure the completeness and professionalism of data, this study designed differentiated question outlines for different interviewee groups: for local residents, the questions focused on daily use and festive functional rituals; for local craftsmen, they concentrated on restoration techniques, artisan work procedures, and construction technical details; and for cultural scholars, they delved into cultural background and historical evolution. Interviews employed audio recorders and mobile recording apps to ensure completeness. They were all conducted in local dialects, recorded in Chinese, and later translated into English for analysis. Finally, the collected oral testimonies, on-site observation records, and photographic materials were transcribed into interview records to comprehensively understand the relationship between the spatial composition of opera stages and cultural context. This method helped to uncover underlying ritual taboos, construction craftsmanship, and folk beliefs to compensate for deficiencies in other textual materials.
3.4 Statistical analyses
3.4.1 Data organization
Initially, the “Zhang ba ba” auspicious scale rule† was employed for measurement. Quality assessment was performed on multi-source geometric data from documentary research, field research, and oral history to ensure compliance with the “Yabai Chi” (White-Pressing Ruler) construction regulation system,† and to eliminate errors and guarantee accuracy. Interview records were systematized to extract cultural contexts, and text, images, and videos were categorized. Subsequently, Revit software facilitated digital modelling of the opera stage courtyard complex, incorporating elements like the stage, courtyard, stands, passages, and corridors; the corresponding plans, elevations, and sections were exported. Finally, design parameters―including stage forms (roof form, bay divisions, flooring, balustrades), stage dimensions (bay width, depth, area, clear height, ridge purlin elevation, proscenium height), courtyard forms (area, bay width, depth, height), courtyard dimensions (platform elevation and ventilation height), and spectator stand dimensions (bay width, depth, and height) were tabulated in SPSS with labelled variables and data types. All data and drawings were archived to support subsequent typological classification and cultural analysis.
3.4.2 Data classification
Typological theory is a research method that identifies the essence, commonalities, and differences among various things through classification and induction. Its fundamental principle involves classifying and studying relevant variables based on multiple characteristics or attributes of objects, thereby identifying, simplifying, classifying, and ordering data (
Li et al., 2024). The academic community often integrates space syntax (
Xiang et al., 2025), graphic language (
Zhang et al., 2025), cluster analysis (
Park, 2022), and genealogy (
Jia and Wang, 2024) to explore the morphological characteristics of historical buildings. Based on typological theory, the study first classifies opera stage courtyards according to their spatial typological composition, dividing them into four typological features: Archetypes and Scale, Openness and Interface, Capacity and Field, and Flow and Continuity. Secondly, it organizes the spatial morphology of opera stage courtyards, specifically compiling their planar layout, facade order, unit combination, and spatial correlation. The planar layout is divided into opera stage planar scale and courtyard planar scale; the facade order is divided into opera stage column construction style and opera stage form hierarchy; the unit combination is divided into main hall scale and courtyard capacity; the spatial correlation is divided into opera stage courtyard mountain adaptation and opera stage courtyard ventilation effect. Finally, the spatial morphology is divided into the typological composition of opera stage courtyards: Prototype and Scale includes opera stage planar scale and opera stage column system; Openness and Interface includes courtyard planar scale and opera stage form hierarchy; Capacity and Field includes main hall scale and opera stage courtyard capacity; and Flow and Continuity includes opera stage courtyard mountain adaptation and opera stage courtyard ventilation effect.
3.4.3 Data interpretation
The concept of “cultural space” originates from Henri Lefebvre’s “production of space” theory (
Lefebvre, 1990), referring to a social ecosystem constituting material carriers (settlements, architecture, and landscapes) and spiritual connotations (quyi, customs, and beliefs), bearing historical geography, collective memory, identity, and social functions (
Luft, 2015). It has subsequently expanded into an interdisciplinary theoretical perspective for studying the interactions between human activities, natural geography, and social space, namely the “cultural space” theory (
Qin, 2018). This theory is employed to explore the scene reproduction of cultural ceremonies including traditional festivals and temple fairs, as well as the protection of spatial morphology such as traditional villages (
Ye et al., 2020), ancestral temples (
Chen, 2016), and urban blocks (
Rapoport, 1977). Employing cultural space theory, this study investigates the regional cultural and technological background underpinning spatial morphology, the formal hierarchy principles inherent in design parameters, and the socio-cultural mechanisms underlying typological compositions.
Specifically, anchoring in archetypes and scale, it examines the spatial patterns formed by early Ba Shu opera stage courtyards and their regional cultural contexts, as well as how Sichuan opera and quyi performance modes shape the spatial layout and proportional scales of these courtyards; anchoring in openness and interfaces, it examines how Sichuan opera performance-spectating modes shape the openness of performance-spectating spaces in opera stages and how performance-spectating forms shape the interfaces of opera stages; anchoring in capacity and field, it examines the relationship between spatial capacity in opera stage courtyards and viewing effects, as well as the correlation between spatial capacity and the scale grades of opera stages courtyards and local folk patriarchal social power hierarchies; anchoring in flow and continuity, it examines the spatial fluidity and continuity characteristics moulded by opera stage courtyards, their responses to the Ba Shu natural environment, and the underlying climate adaptation pathways.
4 Results
4.1 Data collection results
4.1.1 Documentary research results
The documentary research revealed that Sichuan opera has a long historical trajectory that can be traced back to the pre-Qin period. As a spatial medium, the opera stage dates back to the Han and Jin dynasties, flourishing during the Ming and Qing periods (1368—1912). Sichuan opera, colloquially known as
Chuanxi, is a traditional performing art that flourished in the Ba Shu region. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, it evolved by assimilating representative opera forms of folk arts from various historical periods, including the
zaju (variety plays) of the late Tang Dynasty,
huajixi (comic plays) (
Zhang, 2008) of the Song Dynasty, and
nanxi (southern opera) of the Yuan Dynasty. Through waves of migration, it combined different artistic styles, creating a unique type of opera by blending five singing styles: Gaoqiang, Kunqu, Huqin (Pihuang), Tanxi (Bangzi), and folk lantern opera. According to the
Taiping Guangji (
Extensive Records of the Taiping Era) and
Baishi Huibian (
Compendium of Historical Anecdotes), bullfighting-themed performances emerged following the Qin Dynasty’s migration into Sichuan. During the Han Dynasty,
jiaodi wrestling spectacles laid the foundation for early Sichuan opera and quyi. From the late Tang to the Five dynasties, Sichuan opera and quyi peaked, epitomised by representative works such as
Liu Bi Zhi Mai,
Mai Xiu Liang Qi, and
Guankou Shen. Notably,
Youyang Zazu (
Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang) documented China’s earliest professional opera troupe, comprising actors such as Gan Manchuan, Bai Jia, Ye Gui, Zhang Mei, and Zhang Ao (
Zhang and Guo, 2019). In the spatial dimension, the large-scale migration waves during the Ming and Qing dynasties not only brought production materials and advanced technology (Fig. 3), but also significantly contributed to the development of Sichuan opera and quyi. Theatrical arts from various regions, such as Anhui’s Hui opera, Jiangsu’s Kunqu opera, and Shaanxi’s Qin opera, entered the Ba Shu region. After the mid-Qing Dynasty, the reformation movement of Sichuan opera led to the gradual formation of modern Sichuan opera. This new form emerged as a synthesis of ancient Sichuan opera and regional folk arts, ultimately forming a rare regional genre that incorporated five distinct vocal styles―Kunqu, Gaohong, Huqin, Banxi, and Dengdiao―resulting in the unique vocal characteristic of “high-pitched tunes as the main style, with five vocal tuneson one stage”. This transformation gave Sichuan opera and quyi a fresh identity, with the gradual emergence of representative and preserved works of each vocal tune.
The maturity of Sichuan opera and quyi directly spurred the development and refinement of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards. As the physical bearer of Sichuan opera performance-spectating spaces, its spatial morphology and typological composition characteristics are directly shaped by this poly-source yet converging quyi culture. Historical records indicate that Ba Shu opera stage courtyards originated from religious sacrificial rituals, where ancestors sought open spaces or natural elevated platforms to perform Nuo opera to delight the deities. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, the flourishing of Sichuan opera spurred the evolution of diverse traditional opera stage forms and types. Opera stages were often attached to ancestral temples or immigrant guild halls. Due to topographical constraints, courtyards employed hybrid structures of column-and-tie timber framing and post-and-lintel timber framing to create cantilevered stage platforms, exhibiting regional adaptability through terraced platforms and stilt elevation structures. The decorative themes of gray sculptures on stage roofs and stage-edge carvings showed a secular tendency, primarily drawing from folk life and legendary tales, integrated into the regional cultural context. Overall, Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, as spatial carriers of the multilayered accumulation of culture and technology, served as both faith spaces for appeasing gods and averting disasters, and cultural spaces uniting communities. They fulfilled multiple social functions, including worship, commerce, and entertainment, gradually transitioning from “divine altars” to “secular stages”.
4.1.2 Field research results
The field research reveals that the Ba Shu region has few pre-Ming and pre-Qing folk opera stage courtyards. Existing spaces predominantly date from the mid-Qing Dynasty onward, with regional distribution as follows: 182 in the Chengdu Plain, 156 in eastern Sichuan, 324 in hilly central Sichuan, 212 in northern Sichuan, 374 in southern Sichuan, and 94 in southwestern Sichuan. Among the 23 representative research samples, 14 have Xieshan (hip-and-gable) roofs; 1 Juanpeng (rolled-shed) roof, 2 Xuanshan (overhanging gable) roof, 1Chongyan Sijiao cuanjian (pyramidal roof with double eaves and four slopes) roof, 1 Juanpeng Xieshan (hybrid rolled-hip) roof, 2 Xieshan Kuiding (helmetshaped hip) roof, and 2 Chongyan xieshan (double hip-and-gable) roof each; 5 are single-bay and 8 are three-bay. The stage dimensions are generally as follows: width 4.5—9.5 m, depth 4—9 m, ridge purlin height 7—17.5 m, floor elevation 2—3.5 m, balustrade height 2.5—3.5 m, upper eave height 4.5—7 m, area 25—70 m2, clear height 4—14 m, and proscenium height 2.6—3.2 m. Variations in scale and site conditions yield stage areas of 25—70 m2 and courtyard areas of 25—650 m2.
Owing to thriving agricultural economies, the bustling commerce of market towns, and communal activities of clan settlements during the Ming—Qing period, opera stage courtyards were integrated with palace temples, guildhalls, ancestral halls, and commercial spaces. The fieldwork reveals three functional prototypes: immigrant guildhalls, clan ancestral halls, and folk temples. With the integration of immigrant cultures, the refinement of clan systems, and the prosperity of industrial trade, these three functional forms of opera stage courtyards in the Ba Shu region have coexisted in the socio-economic development, exhibiting shared spatial characteristics. First, the Ba Shu opera stage and the entrance gate form a dual-faceted entity, with the stage facing the main hall to create a “reversed-seat” structure, reinforcing the symbiosis of secularity and faith; wing rooms and corridors connect multiple courtyards, to achieve the coexistence of functions, such as merchant guild activities and sacrificial ceremonies. The Qi’an Palace opera stage courtyards and the Yu King Palace opera stage courtyards at the Chongqing Huguang Guild Hall exemplify these coexisting uses. Second, Ba Shu opera stage courtyards generally adhere to the “one stage, one hall” system, with the stage and ancestral hall sharing an axis. This structure enhances clan ethical order through axial sequences, such as the Tingzhong Ancestral Hall opera stage courtyards in Jiangjin. Third, the platform height of Ba Shu opera stages is lower than the base of the main hall, accentuating hierarchical concepts and power symbols of ritual architecture through height differences, as seen in the Wenchang Palace opera stage courtyards in Laitan and the Huanhou Palace opera stage courtyards in Zigong. Fourth, the spatial volume of the opera tower within Ba Shu opera stage courtyards is substantial, with varied roof morphologies shaping an exceptionally graceful skyline and regional landmarks within vernacular architectural communities. In particular, the stages exhibit exquisite luxury in their structural forms, construction details, and folk decorations, showcasing craftsmanship techniques and decorative aesthetics imbued with distinctive Ba Shu regional characteristics.
4.1.3 Oral history results
Sichuan opera and quyi thrived within the Ba Shu cultural-geographical region and were closely related to the productive and daily lives of local ancestors. This growth gave rise to unique Ba Shu-style opera stage courtyard spaces that were intricately intertwined with the conceptual frameworks of secular systems maintaining social order as well as the human—geographical environment of the Ba Shu region. Owing to the integration of multi-regional folk traditions, Sichuan opera and quyi exhibited an exceptionally strong artistic charm. Irrespective of whether they were scholars, officials, or the common citizen―such as merchants, peasants, soldiers, and women―individuals from all social classes embraced the entertainment, appreciation, and creation of Sichuan opera. All forms of folk activities, such as guilds, traditional festivals, funerals, marriages, and various local events, could not be isolated from the presence of Sichuan opera and quyi. Sichuan opera and quyi permeated folk life in a panoramic manner, using unique artistic expressions to imprint the historical changes and customs of the region and embodying the spiritual and aesthetic quality of multicultural integration in the Ba Shu region. Manager of the local Xiqin Guild Hall (Zigong, August 2024) said: The traditional opera stages in Zigong were exceptionally vibrant in the early years, serving as a paramount event during festivals and holidays. Troupes would perform with the resonant sounds of the suona and the rhythmic beats of gongs and drums, enacting grand operas dedicated to Bodhisattva, accompanied by kowtowing and incense-burning rituals, all to beseech favourable weather for crops and prosperity.
As a witness to traditional cultural and social-historical transformations, the zeitgeist, societal landscape, historical transformations, and folk customs of Ba Shu are vividly reflected in the Sichuan Opera repertoires (Fig. 4).
Traditional Sichuan opera and quyi, deeply integrated with the production and livelihood of the Ba Shu peopleis reflected in the form and construction of the performance-spectating spaces in the opera stage courtyards. The performance content imposes stringent requirements on the planar layout and functional configuration of the opera stage. This necessitates a “front-back dual zone” arrangement, establishing a main stage and an auxiliary stage to form an open layout for three-sided viewing. Additionally, the stage must accommodate auxiliary functions, such as props, makeup, and accompaniment, exemplified by the Xiqin Guild Hall, which incorporates wing rooms on both sides. Opera stage courtyards are typically aligned along the central axis of courtyard complexes, facing the main hall and often integrated with a gate tower. Their concentrated carved decorations and sculptural artistry represent the architectural apex, highlighting the cultural metaphorical wisdom within the folk construction system. As noted by a researcher in Sichuan Opera studies, “Performances in guildhalls transcend mere entertainment, serving social functions like attracting fellow townsmen and strengthening ethnic cohesion” (Chengdu, September 2024). As carriers of these performing arts, opera stage courtyards integrate functions such as networking between townspeople, deity worship, clan rituals, and guild management. In the multi-ethnic social milieu of Ba Shu, these diverse functions coalesce symbiotically, fostering a composite functional entity rooted in regional cultural and technological traditions.
4.2 Statistical analysis results
4.2.1 Data organisation results
Firstly, the study introduced the “Zhang ba ba” auspicious scale rule to comprehensively evaluate the data, verified compliance with the “Yabai Chi” construction regulation system, and eliminated size deviations in the measurements. Taking the Qi’an Palace opera stage courtyards in Huguang Guild Hall as an example, the stage opening height was measured at 2775 cm and corrected to 2800 cm (eight chi six, corresponding to the “Six White” auspicious star†); the stage bay width was measured at 8850 cm and corrected to 8900 cm (two zhang eight chi eight, corresponding to the “Eight White” auspicious star). Secondly, Revit software was used to draft the stage plan and elevation drawings, as well as the courtyard plan and section drawings, enabling the full digitalization of historical building data from acquisition and processing to application. Subsequently, a four-tier parameter database was created using SPSS: (1) Construction Chronology Layer: construction periods (Ming, Qing); (2) Spatial Configuration Layer: roof types (Xieshan, Xuanshan); bay classifications: (single, three-bay); (3) Quantitative Parameter Layer: 3D dimensions (stage width, depth, ridge purlin height); functional interfaces (stage floor elevation, balustrade height, proscenium opening height); and (4) Spatial Relationship Layer (courtyard width, depth and capacity area). Statistical analysis of the design data revealed the following characteristics: the performance interface area for single-bay stages ranges between 12.5 and 25 m2, while for three-bay stages it ranges between 10.5 and 16.5 m2; courtyard widths range between 8 and 24.5 m, and depths between 3.5 and 28.5 m; viewing hall heights range between 4.5 and 8 m, widths between 10 and 22 m, and depths between 5 and 15 m; courtyard capacities range between 1000 and 3600 m3, with courtyard platform heights ranging between 1 and 6 m.
4.2.2 Data classification results
Based on typological theory, this study categorically explores the planar layout, facade order, unit combination, and spatial correlation characteristics of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, yielding the following data classification results:
(1) Archetype and scale of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards. Opera stage planar scale: stages are divided into front performance areas and back auxiliary areas, both exhibiting rectangular shapes with width exceeding depth. Space sequences are extended via corridors or side wings. Opera stage columnar system: The column grids of the stages are regular, commonly featuring double-column single-bay or four-column triple-bay layouts; single-bay stage performance interface areas typically exceed those of triple-bay stages.
(2) Openness and interface of Ba Shu stage opera stage courtyards. Courtyard planar scale: courtyard shapes are constrained by topography into rectangles, trapezoids, or irregular polygons, centred around an open yard, with surrounding wings and main halls often adopting open-corridor structures to form terraced gallery courtyards. Opera stage form hierarchy: high-grade stages utilize four-column triple-bay layouts with hip-and-gable (xieshan) roofs, intricate ridge decorations, and elevated bases, typically arranged symmetrically with main halls; ordinary-grade stages feature double-column single-bay layouts with overhanging gable roofs and minimal ridge ornaments.
(3) Capacity and field of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards. Main hall scale: stages and main halls are usually positioned at opposite ends of the courtyard axis, creating a counterpart relationship; main halls have higher bases and larger volumes, often built on the highest terrace with spacious eaves galleries or moon platforms. Courtyard capacity: courtyards are generally compact, with surrounding wing rooms and opera stages typically two stories high, resulting in low height-to-width ratios.
(4) Flow and continuity of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards. Mountain adaptation: opera stages, courtyards, main halls, and wing rooms adapt to slopes using stilts, platform-raising, superterranean, and split levels to handle elevation differences, creating rich spatial hierarchies and unique performance-viewing effects. Ventilation effect: courtyards act as air wells, forming “alleys” with side wings, combined with elevated stage bases, open doors, and open windows of main halls, to guide cross-ventilation; layouts align with prevailing winds, as site selection and openings facilitate natural airflow.
4.2.3 Data analysis results
The traditional opera stage courtyard spaces in the Ba Shu region reflect diverse folk traditions, rooted in the cultural and geographical context of Ba Shu. They serve as material carriers of cultural experiences accumulated by ancestors within specific spatiotemporal systems, embodying rich human-land relationships. Based on cultural space theory, this study applies a cultural interpretation of the prototypes, interfaces, fields, and spatial aspects of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards. This approach reveals their symbiotic integration in a multi-ethnic social environment characterized by mutual exchange and harmony, forming a spatial morphology of a highly regional “guild hall-ancestral temple-temple” functional entity with shared typological compositional features:
(1) The prototype and scale of Ba Shu stage courtyards encompass two aspects: a) the spatial prototype and regional culture―the opera stage and hall are positioned at opposite ends of the main courtyard, creating an “entrance-stage-hall” spatial prototype on the axis. It adapts to the primary function of entertaining people and deities to achieve social indoctrination and divine protection, reflecting secularized characteristics and localized interpretations rooted in primitive animistic folk beliefs; b) the layout configuration and proportional scale―the traditional Sichuan opera performance model is not merely a performance system but also a spatial organizational logic. The stage features a “dual front-rear zone” to meet the needs of Sichuan opera’s front performance space and rear auxiliary space. The stage’s planar width exceeds its depth and the performance interface width exceeds its height proportionally, catering to the improvisational nature of Sichuan opera.
(2) The openness and interface of Ba Shu stage courtyards comprise two aspects: a) open space and performance-spectating mode―the stage presents a “protruding” open form with a “three-sided viewable” performance interface to accommodate Sichuan opera’s multi-voice ensemble on one stage, pursuit of exaggerated postures and special actions, and viewing needs from any angle; b) opera stage interface and performance-spectating morphology―buildings enclosing Ba Shu stage courtyards are mostly open-corridor buildings to ensure framed viewing effects through the stage interface throughout the courtyard. This form meets the requirements as a gathering place for fellow townspeople, guilds, clans, and temple fair activities during festivals, thereby reinforcing regional social relations.
(3) The capacity and field of Ba Shu stage courtyards involve two aspects: a) spatial capacity and audio-visual effects―the courtyard’s spatial capacity is maintained within a fixed range to create appropriate sound reflection and reverberation time for an optimal acoustic environment; b) spatial field and scale hierarchy―the field size of the stage courtyard space positively correlates with the scale hierarchy of the main hall. A larger hall scale signifies higher power levels in folk patriarchal society and greater social influence of the spatial field.
(4) The flow and continuity of Ba Shu stage courtyards include two aspects: a) spatial flow and topography―the spatial flow shaped by stage courtyards responds to the Ba Shu region’s terrain. Techniques like terraced platforms and stilted elevation structures are extensively employed to resolve elevation differences, creating rich spatial layers and ensuring continuous viewing sightlines; b) spatial continuity and climatic adaptation―the spatial continuity addresses Ba Shu’s humid and rainy climate, utilizing forms such as courtyard air wells, stilted stage bases, open halls, or colonnaded side rooms to manage microclimates and foster comfortable ecological performance-viewing spaces.
5 Discussion
5.1 Archetypes and scales of opera stage courtyard spaces
5.1.1 Spatial prototype and regional culture
Chu Ci Song Yu’s Dialogue with the King of Chu of the Warring States period says, “A guest started singing simple and crude folk songs at Ying Du, and thousands of people in the city started singing along with him.” These “simple and crude folk songs” refer to the folk songs and dances of Ba Shu. The spatial prototype of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards can be traced back to simple folk performance platforms. These performance stages were typically erected temporarily on open land, often located in public spaces such as town entrances, main street nodes, and plaza courtyards, creating distinctive localised outdoor performance-spectating landscapes that enriched the folk cultural life of the common people at the grassroots level. This early spatial form was also commonly found in the market town environments of Sichuan and Chongqing during the Ming and Qing periods (Fig. 5(a)), with the most representative example being the city of Luo in Qianwei, which was established during the Chongzhen era of the Ming Dynasty (Fig. 5(b)). The main stage on the boat-shaped street in Luo spans the roadway and reflects rich regional cultural characteristics.
With the maturation and formalisation of Sichuan opera and quyi performing arts, as well as their dissemination among the populace, the spaces used for such performances gradually became fixed in folk communities. Unlike performance-spectating spaces set up directly in town nodes, more prevalent opera stages were integrated into the opera courtyard spaces of Ba Shu. As a key node along the main axial sequence of courtyard complexes, the stage came to define the performance area through a complete “horizontal—vertical” interface, supporting various socio-cultural and economic activities, forming a distinctive open-air opera courtyard space. It can be said that the opera stage courtyard emerged alongside the development of Sichuan opera and quyi of the Ba Shu region. After being combined with the courtyard, the stage became known as the “Le Lou” or “Xian Ji Lou” (skill presentation pavilion), typically positioned along the central position of the courtyard’s main axis and corresponding with the main hall. These opera stages often adopt a reversed-seat layout connected to the entrance, eventually forming the spatial archetype of “entrance—stage—hall” around the central courtyard (Fig. 6). This spatial archetype serves a dual purpose: to adapt to the complex and varied mountainous environment of the Ba Shu region, the stage and courtyard entrance are tightly integrated to form a cohesive reversed-seat layout, adapting to the terrain and creating a more compact, intensive courtyard axis (
Zhang et al., 2025). However, it also addresses the humid and rainy climate of the Ba Shu region; the stage courtyard is closely connected to the indoor space via pavilions, corridors, or eaves galleries, creating a continuous, integrated corridor-style indoor—outdoor space.
5.1.2 Layout configuration and proportional scale
The Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, taking into account the visual needs of quyi performance-spectating and the elevation changes of the terrain, usually adopt the elevated bottom floor as the entrance passage to the courtyard space. This presents a multifaceted regional adaptation strategy that integrates spatial density, traffic organisation, visual lines for performance, and environmental acoustics in the mountain environment. The opera building in the Ba Shu courtyard features a towering spatial volume with richly-varied roof forms, creating an exceptionally graceful skyline that serves as a prominent regional landmark in the vernacular architectural ensemble. In particular, the stage exhibits exquisite opulence in its structural form, construction detailing, and folk decorations, demonstrating the distinctive Ba Shu regional craftsmanship and decorative aesthetics. The floor plan of the Ba Shu opera stage has developed a mature rectangular layout in folk practice (Fig. 7). The stage area is divided into front and rear zones by a partition called “Ma Men.” The front area serves as the performance-spectating space for quyi performances and the rear area serves as the backstage space for performance support, with these areas connecting to the corridors on both sides of the stage and courtyard, forming a unified space. Textual research reveals that opera stages across the Ba Shu region varied in scale owing to differences in functional requirements and economic—technological differences. However, their dimensional proportions exhibited regional consistency while collectively adhering to the “Zhang ba ba” auspicious scale rule, traditional modular standards prevalent in the Ming and Qing dynasties folk architecture of the Ba Shu region (Table 3).
The width of the performance area in the front stage is always greater than its depth. In the horizontal dimension, the width-to-depth ratio is approximately 1.5:1. However, this proportional scale is partly because the front stage is expanded horizontally to face the primary audience, allowing more spectators to view the performances directly. However, influenced by the musical instruments, props, and performance procedures of Sichuan opera, the extensive width of the stage serves the Sichuan opera artists’ improvisational performance style. The space between the e’fang (architrave) and the proscenium opening of Sichuan traditional stages constitutes the primary performance-spectating space for Sichuan opera, where the proportional relationship of spatial dimensions directly influences the character positioning, scene composition, and behavioural aesthetics of the performance (
Wu et al., 2019). The column system of the stage is typically categorized into two types: a double-column single-bay and a four-column three-bay (Table 4). The single-bay stage usually has a width ranging from 4 to 6 m, with a height-to-width ratio of approximately 1:1.3, ensuring that the primary performance-spectating interface remains open and complete. The three-bay stage generally ranges from 7 to 9 m in width, with a height-to-width ratio of 1:1.6. The “ming jian” (central bay) is the main section of the stage, with widths ranging from 4 to 6 m to guarantee the primary performance-spectating interface. The side bay, which is a narrow vertical space, serves as the acoustic performance-spectating space required by Sichuan opera and quyi. These side spaces flexibly employ vertical columns to define the functional zones of the front stage and concentrate the focal point of visual attention on the core performance-spectating space in the central bay.
5.2 Openness and interface of opera stage courtyard spaces
5.2.1 Open space and performance-spectating mode
The Ba Shu Sichuan opera folk art stage reflects the interface of the main axis of the courtyard as the primary performance-spectating space, with three stage interfaces remaining open. The stage is typically free of special fixed facilities, and the performance-spectating space interfaces are clearly defined, ensuring that it supports the “three-sided visibility” characteristic of Sichuan opera and quyi. Tri-directional visibility refers to the ability to watch quyi performances from three directions, allowing audiences to appreciate the show from multiple angles. This multidirectional open stage differs significantly from the proscenium stage in modern theatres. Unlike the cinema-style viewing format in modern proscenium theatres, which is characterised by a lack of interactive exchange between audiences and performers, this multi-interface viewing experience allows audiences to authentically experience the special charm of immersive live performances. For example, the opera stages at the Huanhou Palace in Zigong and Yu King Palace in Chongqing are typical “convex-shaped” open-stage courtyards. Along the central axis of the courtyard, the columns on both sides of the central bay integrate the architrave, gualuo (hanging ornaments) and balustrades of the proscenium opening to form the primary performance-spectating interface. The wing interfaces on both sides create auxiliary performance-spectating interface, collectively constituting a hierarchical, orderly, and multi-interface performance-spectating space with distinct primary and secondary zones. Development of this open, multi-interface format can be traced back to immigration during the Ming and Qing dynasties. During this migration movement, there emerged multi-provincial guild hall models where two or more provincial affiliations merged, such as historical examples including the “Eight-Province Guild Hall,” “Six-Province Guild Hall,” and “Five-Province Guild Hall.” These institutions naturally led to the coexistence of various regional quyi tunes on the same stage, thereby creating heightened demand for the spatial adaptability of theatrical platforms during that era. From one perspective, the Sichuan opera and quyi troupes, driven by competition, began performing various vocal styles to attract larger audiences, which in turn increased the demand for flexible stage facilities. Meanwhile, the exaggerated movements and stylised actions inherent in Sichuan opera and quyi also required visual openness in performance-spectating spaces, further enhancing the interaction between the audience and performers.
Ba Shu opera stage courtyards have evolved through continuous adaptation to quyi performance needs, establishing a refined hierarchical typology. To accommodate larger audiences and increasingly elaborate performances, common strategies included widening bay spans, expanding stage areas, connecting side galleries, and elevating performance platforms. High-grade opera stages typically adopted a four-pillar three-bay structure crowned with intricate hip-and-gable roofs featuring ornate ridge decorations. Their raised platforms often formed strict axial symmetry with the main halls. Exemplifying high-tier design, the Huanhou Palace opera stage courtyard in Zigong stands on an elevated base with a composite hip-and-gable curled-eave roof adorned by ceramic-inlaid bas-relief ridge decorations. Flanked by double-tiered cloisters enclosing a courtyard, it creates a circular performance-viewing space that maximizes audience capacity and sightlines. Thus, Ba Shu opera stage courtyards embody regional socio-cultural hierarchies, serving as both artistic vessels and microcosms of stratified “ceremonial-musical order” (Fig. 8).
5.2.2 Opera stage interface and performance-spectating morphology
The openness of the courtyard space in Ba Shu opera stages is not limited to the performance-spectating stage space for Sichuan opera and quyi performances; the corresponding performance-spectating courtyard space also exhibits openness. These spaces can be divided into three sections: the main viewing hall along the central axis of the courtyard, the wings on both flanks, and the central courtyard. The columns of the three-stage interfaces, arranged in different positions within the performance-spectating space, frame the scene and provide a unique performance effect. The viewing hall and central courtyard on the main axis of the courtyard serve as primary performance-spectating spaces, often forming open colonnades, halls, or lounges that are often formed around a central courtyard in an open layout. The wing rooms on both sides of the courtyard serve as auxiliary performance-spectating spaces, often designed as arcade-style structures. The length-to-width ratio of the opera stage courtyard spaces of Ba Shu is generally maintained within a range of 1:2 to 3:2 (Table 5), effectively defining the distance relationship between the audience and performers in open-air performance-spectating spaces, ensuring sustained close interaction and immersive communication. This has led the courtyard space of the opera stage to cultivate a distinctive spatial discourse within the evolution of Ba Shu folk architectural culture. The open nature of the courtyard space embodies not only the interactive openness of sensory perception, but also the integrative openness of emotional and spiritual communion, distinguishing it from the modern proscenium-style performance-spectating space. As Gao Xingjian stated: “Modern theatre can only regain the freedom of artistic expression by breaking free from those visually-direct environments constructed by cumbersome stage props and backdrops. It must first return to the well-lit stages of the Peking opera or the empty spaces akin to those used by itinerant street performers (
Gao, 1986).”
In particular, large-scale opera stage courtyards in the Ba Shu region are even more distinctive. Spatially, the bell and drum towers are commonly situated in the central sections of wing rooms flanking the opera stage; morphologically, they echo the spatial composition of the main opera stage through corresponding proscenium openings and roof forms that adhere to a principal—subordinate relationship. Functionally, they serve as auxiliary performance venues supporting the main stage’s opera performance. In the land-scarce Ziliujing District, the opera courtyard space of Huanhou Palace in Zigong still occupies 157 m2. Centred on each of the two side-wing rooms are the Jieyi Tower and Deyue Tower, featuring a double-eaved gable-and-hip roof, forming a U-shaped Sichuan opera and quyi performance venue around the central-axis opera stage. They feature terraced platforms with layered structures, elegantly curved roof ridges, and architecture that exhibits distinct regional characteristics (Fig. 9(a)). The opera stage courtyard in the Xiqin Guild Hall in Zigong covers an area of up to 632 m2, with bell and drum towers featuring a triple-bay double-eaved gable-and-hip roof on either side of the wing rooms near the opera stage space, forming a three-sided enclosed open-air performance area within the courtyard (Fig. 9(b)). This openness not only manifests in the high visual permeability and multi-directional sightlines of performance-spectating, but also in the continuity of the interface between performers and audience, which accommodates the diverse functions of folk deity worship, ancestor veneration, folk customs, and ceremonial festivities.
5.3 Capacity and field of opera stage courtyard spaces
5.3.1 Spatial capacity and audio-visual effects
Opera performances are held almost every day in the Guild Hall, sometimes as many as seven or eight in a day. Every temple hall opposite the main hall is required to have an opera stage (
Zhou, 1987). To ensure the acoustic adaptability of Sichuan opera and quyi performances, performance-spectating venues in the Sichuan region evolved over centuries of accumulated experience, progressing from “setting up makeshift stages anywhere” to “constructing terraces as dedicated performance spaces”, ultimately developing into enclosed opera stage courtyards with fixed capacities and idiosyncratic domains. Through effective control of the courtyard’s spatial capacity, the venue creates appropriate sound wave reflection and reverberation time, thereby achieving highly cohesive sound field effects that organically integrate the spatiotemporal domains of the audience and performers. This cohesive sound field enables the audience and performers to merge, fostering an intimate, delicate, and casual environment, where people can openly share their feelings and even join in the performances―such as “cheering,” “clapping,” “setting off firecrackers and hanging red ribbons,” and enthusiastically shouting “Hao!” (Bravo!) during moments of excitement (Fig. 9(c)). The free and relaxed acoustic field atmosphere shapes the unique characteristics of Sichuan opera and quyi. On one hand, the audience must allow their emotions and thoughts to become deeply immersed in the opera to establish an empathetic resonance with its content and plot; on the other, they also need to “step out of the opera” to promptly critique and applaud the performers’ stage movements, vocal techniques, and other artistic skills.
5.3.2 Spatial field and scale hierarchy
Based on field research, the capacity of the Ba Shu opera stage courtyard space remains within a fixed range, with the courtyard’s length and width generally maintaining dimensions between 5 m and 25 m, and height typically ranging from 4 m to 12 m (Table 6). Depending on the architectural scale and site conditions, the spatial organisation of opera stage courtyards can be divided into two forms: transverse axis sequences and longitudinal axis layouts. The length-to-width ratio of these spaces falls within the range of 1/2 to 2/1, with rare cases where terrain constraints and other factors result in narrow, elongated spaces with a length-to-width ratio exceeding 2.5:1. This proportional scale is closely related to the height of the Ba Shu opera-stage courtyards. The appropriate acoustic field effect in traditional operas of the Ming and Qing dynasties requires a spatial volume with specific proportional ratios, where both sound wave reflection and reverberation time fall within a reasonable range, namely, a mid-frequency average reverberation time of approximately 1 s and a speech intelligibility index around 0.6. Guild halls such as the Qi’an Guild Hall, Yu King Palace, and Guangdong House in Chongqing’s Huguang Guild Hall complex are situated along steep cliffs by the Yangtze River. The opera stage courtyard, under the constraints of limited site conditions, has developed a distinctive spatial composition characterised by the hierarchical extension of halls along the central axis and sequential expansion of spatial capacity and volume along the lateral axis. Located on the relatively flat, gentle slope terrain, the opera stage courtyard layouts of the Xiqin Guild Hall in Zigong and the Longevity Palace in Zhengyuan extend their hierarchical sequences and capacity scales by adapting to longitudinal zoning along the central axis of the complexes.
Field data indicate that the variation in spatial capacity of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards is closely correlated with the hierarchical status of the main hall along the main axial sequence. The higher the hierarchical level of the main hall, the larger the scale of its wooden structural framework, the more intricate the roof configuration, the more imposing the spatial volume, and the more elaborate the decorative details. The regional cultural activities conducted there also gain increasing significance, and the social influence of this field increases accordingly (Table 7). This phenomenon is closely linked to the patriarchal clan system in Sichuan’s rural society during the Ming and Qing dynasties. In Ming—Qing immigrant society, Sichuan opera and quyi, which integrated the essence of northern and southern opera arts, evolved into a cultural field for communication among geographical ties, professional affiliations, and blood kinship groups. Social functions play a vital role in enhancing ethnic cohesion and trust, promoting regional cultural consensus and fostering regional identity among settlements (
Holmes, 2019). The scale and hierarchy of the main hall directly symbolize the power associated with strengthening kinship relations and familial ties, reinforcing family cohesion during the transition from family to clan units, and ultimately serving to enhance survival competitiveness. With the regionalisation of clan ethics, this spatial hierarchy reflects both the power structure of local patriarchal societies and social influence of the opera stage courtyard in the Ba Shu region.
5.4 Flow and continuity of opera stage courtyard spaces
5.4.1 Spatial flow and topography
Shiliao Xunkan (
The Palace Museum, 1930) records an imperial edict of the 45th year of Emperor Qianlong’s reign (1736—1795). According to a report by Yi Ling’a, the imperial edict instructed provincial governors and military commanders to dispatch representatives to diligently search for and investigate other types of theatrical vocal styles beyond the Kunqu opera, including Shibai Ciang, Qin Ciang, Yiyang Ciang, Chu Ciang, etc. These vocal styles gained immense popularity in the provinces of Jiangsu, Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou. Sichuan opera and quyi developed unique performance techniques―such as face-changing (Bian Lian), sabre-hiding (Cang Dao), fire-spinning (Shua Huo), and human levitation (Ti Ren)―influenced by northern and southern vaudeville-style performances during the Ming—Qing immigration movements. The fluidity and continuity of Ba Shu opera stage courtyard spaces are well-suited to the highly-skilled stunt performances of Sichuan opera and quyi. This enabled the integration of Sichuan opera and quyi stage characters, exhibiting distinct personalities, subtly nuanced emotions, and dynamic wit, with an elaborate portrayal of exaggerated movements and virtuosic stunts. The appropriately scaled “courtyard-cloister” prototype organically integrates the stage, wing rooms, courtyard, and principal hall, rendering Ba Shu opera stage courtyards spatially fluid and creating a flowing space continuum with visually ambiguous boundaries between “performance” and “audience” (Fig. 10).
The continuity of the Ba Shu opera stage courtyard is achieved as follows: first, through the weak partitioning of functional spaces such as wing rooms and central halls within the colonnaded courtyard space, a highly permeable continuous spatial form, defined by sightline-corridor directional interfaces, is created. Second, stilted elevations and terraced platforms intelligently adapt to the mountainous terrain to create a favourable microclimate environment and interconnected climate corridors (
Han et al., 2023). For instance, the Huanhou Palace in Zigong has a cohesive reversed-seat layout between its opera stage and entrance pylon gate. A timber frame, gable-and-hip roof, helmet-shaped roof, and other elements are integrated to create a fluid architectural ensemble. The flow and continuity of the courtyard’s longitudinal sequence are enhanced by the placement of the opera stage and main hall at either end, spacious and open spatial volumes, and continuous decorative details.
5.4.2 Spatial continuity and climatic adaptation
Site environments with complex terrain and topography enhance the visual continuity and fluidity of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards. When considering factors such as the feudal clan system, ritual codes, and sightline corridors, the best viewing positions in the Ba Shu opera stage courtyards are along the central axis sequence, specifically the viewing hall and elevated platform space beneath the eaves. These locations are similar in elevation to the opera stage, providing audiences with the best near-horizontal viewing angles. Opera-stage courtyards use terraced platforms and stilted elevation structures (
Xu et al., 2024) to maintain optimal viewing angles between the central courtyard and side-wing rooms (Table 8). These designs adapt to complex topography, creating multi-tiered viewing platforms with zoned sections at various elevations to accommodate larger audiences. Represented by the opera stage courtyard complexes of Huguang Guild Hall in Chongqing, the courtyard at Yu King Palace employs stilted elevation structures to adapt to the terrain, while maintaining visual fluidity and continuity. The opera stage courtyards of the Qi’an House and Guangdong House adopted a “one stage, one hall” terraced construction method, with layered platforms harmoniously integrated into the mountainous topography. In addition, a strategy of replacing “platform construction” and “elevated structures” with continuous steps has been adopted, forming courtyard spaces with enhanced fluidity. For example, the opera stage courtyards of Baoshan Palace in Chongqing and Tianhou Palace in Zhenyuan both feature continuous steps constructed in front of the viewing halls to accommodate elevation differences within the courtyards. Considering their highly transparent sightline organisation, these spaces also serve as optimal viewing areas beyond viewing halls.
Sichuan opera and quyi performances typically attract a large number of local audiences, creating a lively and bustling atmosphere. Under such circumstances, it is imperative to resolve the comfort of the microclimatic environment in performance-spectating venues. Spatial fluidity and continuity are also manifested in organizing the microclimate in Ba Shu opera stage courtyards (
Zhu et al., 2023). Within limited land parcels, courtyards employ well-designed forms to organise spaces. Through the use of spatial forms such as sky wells, cold alleys, elevated stage structures, divided-stage open halls, and corridor-style wing rooms, these courtyards create a naturally-ventilated environment with enhanced airflow in specific areas, effectively mitigating the hot, humid, and rainy climate conditions of the Ba Shu region (
Du et al., 2014) (Table 9). For example, the opera stage courtyards of Zigong Huanhou Palace, Chongqing Baoshan Palace, and Laitan Wenchang Palace adopted spatial patterns of stilted structures and terraced platforms. This approach not only adapts to the limited land conditions in mountainous environments, but also enhances the comfort of the inner courtyard and viewing halls by forming ventilation corridors between the elevated stages and entrance gate spaces. However, the terraced corridor courtyard adapted to the natural terrain creates a pressure differential through airflow elevation. Combined with the cooling lanes and stack-ventilated courtyards of the opera stage courtyard, this form generates a stack effect, resulting in exceptional ventilation. If ventilation green corridors in the surrounding environment can be further integrated and skilfully guided according to natural conditions, their effectiveness will be even greater. For instance, the Huguang Guild Hall in Chongqing, located on the north bank of the Yangtze River, utilises longitudinal corridors enclosed by arc-shaped fire-sealing walls to channel the river breeze into its courtyards, combined with elevated stage structures, divided-stage open halls, sky wells, and cold alleys, creating a comfortable and eco-friendly ecological performance-spectating space.
5.5 Future outlook
This study investigates the spatial composition of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, facilitating the inheritance and utilization of vernacular cultural heritage while providing data support for constructing harmonious and beautiful villages under rural revitalization. As multidimensional cultural carriers and social spaces, these courtyards offer historical case studies for reconstructing socio-cultural functions in rural communities. They also provide a technical foundation for dynamically inheriting Sichuan opera and quyi intangible cultural heritage. Future studies can decode construction wisdom such as “ventilation efficiency in alleyways behind opera stages courtyards” and “thermal buffering mechanisms of stilted ventilation corridors,” employing sensor-acquired microenvironment monitoring data for extended periods. Computer-aided simulations can further enable scientific quantification of Ba Shu stage courtyards.
Additionally, per UNESCO World Heritage nomination criteria, which requires only one of six standards, this research propels the Sichuan Ancient Road cultural route nomination by satisfying three standards: (iii) Unique Testimony to Vanished Civilizations: As a spatial embodiment of multicultural integration along the Shu Roads, this research on the spatial composition of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards provides evidence for the historical role of these routes in facilitating cultural exchanges among frontier groups like the Han, Yi, and Qiang ethnicities, constituting a distinct testimony to vanished civilizations or cultural traditions; (iv) Architectural Technology Exemplar: The spatial morphology, courtyard layout, and structural techniques of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards reflect ancient construction wisdom in adapting to mountainous environments in the Ba Shu region. Research on their design parameters and proportional scales provides data support for studying architectural complexes along the Shu Roads―including post stations and fortresses―serving as an outstanding exemplar of architectural artistry and technological evolution; (vi) Association of spiritual values: The ritual ceremonies, local opera, and other intangible cultural heritage carried by opera stages, along with stone carvings, poems, and inscriptions along the Shu Roads, collectively constitute the direct connection between ideological beliefs and traditional lifestyles. Research on spatial culture and technology reinforces the universal significance of the Shu Roads as a conduit for disseminating spiritual culture. The research team will continue to deepen the analysis and documentation of the spatial morphology, decorative features, and structural configurations of opera stage courtyards, supplementing cultural and technical information on Sichuan opera and quyi in the heritage of the Shu Roads routes. This effort will refine the cultural value of stage courtyards along these routes and advance the protection, inheritance, and utilization of ancient opera stage courtyards along the Shu Roads. Ultimately, this work supports the application for the Shu Roads cultural routes to be inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
6 Conclusions
Sichuan Opera and quyi originate from the experiential expressions accumulated by the Ba Shu ancestors in transforming and understanding the world within the humanistic and geographical environment of the Ba Shu region. As the performance-spectating space for Sichuan Opera and quyi, the Ba Shu opera stage courtyard represents a geo-cultural product of spatial patterns and temporal changes within the Ba Shu cultural-geographical area. This spatial composition relationship of the performance-spectating space solidifies the rich vernacular performing arts culture and natural geographical experiences of the region. It becomes an integral part of the concepts, structures, regulations, and customs of vernacular quyi. By investigating the spatial configuration relationships of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards under the influence of Sichuan Opera culture, this study formulates the following main conclusions:
1) The spatial morphology of Ba Shu opera stage courtyard complexes epitomizes the integrated influence of grassroots social organization, economic capacity, ritual traditions, and cultural identity on architectural typology. To accommodate the flexible staging requirements of Sichuan opera’s diverse vocal techniques and choreographic movements, these complexes developed multi-directional, open-plan performance spaces centred on axial courtyards. They employed tiered platforms (“one-stage-one-hall” configuration) and stilted structures to adapt to mountainous terrain, creating multi-level viewing platforms. Microclimate optimization was achieved through spatial configurations like air-cooled alleys (tianjing lengxiang), elevated stages, partitioned halls (fentai changting), and corridor-flanked galleries. Well courtyards (jingyuan) organized the spatial sequence into terraced cloisters that accommodated multifunctional needs―kinship networking, deity worship, patriarchal governance, and guild administration. These courtyards were instrumental in disseminating Sichuan opera and quyi culture and technology. They gradually evolved into crucial social nexuses in the Ming—Qing dynasties, integrating kinship, geographical, and occupational ties in Ba Shu immigrant society.
2) The proportional scale and design parameters of these spaces symbolize local patriarchal power hierarchies, mirroring the complexes’ societal influence. Stage heights (7—17.5 m) correlate with hierarchical rank: superior-grade stages feature taller plinths (2.6—3.2 m podium height), wider bays (predominantly one-bay or three-bay layouts), and elaborate stone carvings. Hip-and-gable roofs (xieshan) with ridge ornaments denote high-status stages, while ordinary stages use simpler gable roofs (xuanshan). Spectators’ halls (4.5—8 m height) exhibit scaled-up timber frames, complex roof geometries, and intricate decorations commensurate with clan prestige―material manifestations of kinship solidarity and territorial dominance during familial-to-clan transitions. Courtyard capacity (1000—3600 m3) directly corresponds to ceremonial significance, with larger complexes hosting regionally pivotal cultural events that amplify their societal impact.
3) The Ba Shu opera stage courtyards exhibit a symbiotic integration with local socio-economic development, forming shared typological characteristics shaped by geographical context, cultural exchange, folk beliefs, and ritual practices. Typically positioned along the central axis facing the main hall, the stage is integrated with the entrance to form a reversed-seating layout, establishing a spatial prototype of “entrance-stage-hall” around the courtyard. Through vernacular practice, these courtyards developed mature dimensional relationships to optimize performance positioning, spatial composition, and behavioural aesthetics for Sichuan opera. The stages feature a protruding open design with three-sided viewable performance interfaces, while the courtyard centres on an open-bayed corridor structure (changlang). This ensures high visual permeability and multi-directional sightlines, maintaining spatial continuity between performers and audiences. Acoustically calibrated for controlled reverberation and sound reflection, the courtyards possess fixed capacity and unique sonic fields. Spatial fluidity is achieved through the “courtyard-veranda” (yuanba-huilang) prototype, blurring boundaries between performance and spectatorship. Minimal partitions enhance visual permeability along corridor orientations, and adaptive strategies like stilted foundations (diaojiao), terraced platforms, and topographic leveraging create favourable microclimates and continuous climatic corridors.
Collectively, this study systematically deciphers the spatial morphology, design parameters, and typological composition of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards, examining the intrinsic relationship between Sichuan opera performance and spatial culture. It elucidates the pluri-constructive cultural connotations of quyi spaces, revealing opera stage courtyards as embodiments of the mutual embeddedness and co-construction between Sichuan opera culture and vernacular construction techniques. This provides evidence for the historical dissemination of multi-ethnic exchange and integration in Ba Shu quyi culture. This study systematically organizes the spatial composition of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards through documentary research, field research, and oral history to clarify technical standards such as wood structure design parameters, detailed decorative protection and restoration, and establishes a digital archive of architectural culture and local construction techniques for opera stage courtyards. This study provides implementation cases for the conservation and restoration of Ba Shu stage architectural heritage and the inheritance of quyi cultural heritage, provides data support for the dynamic inheritance of local building techniques under China’s comprehensive rural revitalization strategy, offers technical guidance for the construction of characteristic cultural tourism in harmonious villages, and furnishes historical evidence for rural cultural revitalization in the new era. Despite its strengths, this study has certain limitations. Regarding data collection, the Ba Shu region’s vast territory encompasses numerous opera stage courtyards, yet existing field research prioritizes exemplary cases from the Ming—Qing period. While the selected representative cases suffice to investigate the spatial composition of vernacular opera stage courtyards in Ba Shu, atypical and marginal types remain unexplored. Future research should extend to opera stage courtyards in peripheral Ba Shu areas and neighbouring regions like Yunnan and Guizhou, aiming to construct a diversified evolutionary genealogy of opera stage courtyards across southwestern borderlands and East Asia. In terms of data application, drawings were produced based on researching data with synchronized analysis, although refinement of certain component data remains insufficient. Subsequent studies should employ UAV oblique photography and 3D laser scanning for comprehensive documentation of Ba Shu opera stage courtyards’ historic built environments. Integrated with field-surveyed data, digital modelling and virtual simulation will establish a digital conservation framework for Ba Shu opera stage courtyard heritage, facilitating digital management of regional cultural assets.
2095-2635/2025 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
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