Living geometry, AI tools, and Alexander's 15 fundamental properties. Remodel the architecture studios!

Abstract

A universal set of mathematical qualities combine complexity with geometry to define “living geometry”. Those properties apply equally to organisms as to inanimate matter. A special type of geometry that merges approximate fractal structure with nested symmetries on all scales describes most biological and natural forms. Christopher Alexander discovered 15 geometrical properties in the context of architecture adapted to human feelings, and those provide a practical toolkit for creating living geometry in artifacts, buildings, and urban spaces. AI can be used to both validate the importance of living geometry for human health, and to evaluate architectural designs before and after they are built. Human beings evolved their neurological system to interpret living geometry defined by the ancestral natural environment, and the same interpretative reference is used to navigate today's built environment. This knowledge helps to understand how geometry affects cognition, emotions, and health. Asking large-language models about the best learning environments for creative thought produces a list of suggestions for renovating lecture and studio spaces in architecture schools. A severe disconnect between the contemporary urban experience and living geometry has negative effects on human health, intelligence, and the learning process. AI helps to completely rethink design aesthetics and design-making strategies.

Keywords

AI / Architecture / Built environment / Christopher Alexander / Geometry / Human intelligence

References

[1] Alexander, C. , 1979. The Timeless Way of Building. Oxford University Press.

[2] Alexander, C. , 1996. Keynote speech to the 1996 OOPSLA convention. San Jose. California, October 1996.

[3] Alexander, C. , 2001. The Nature of Order. Volume 1: the Phenomenon of Life. Center for Environmental Structure.

[4] Alexander, C. , Ishikawa, S. , Silverstein, M. , Jacobson, M. , FiksdahlKing, I. , Angel, S. , 1977. A Pattern Language. Oxford University Press.

[5] Aresta, M. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2021. The importance of domestic space in the times of COVID-19. Challenges 12 (2), 27.

[6] Banaei, M. , Hatami, J. , Yazdanfar, A. , Gramann, K. , 2017. Walking through architectural spaces: the impact of interior forms on human brain dynamics. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 11, 477.

[7] Barrett, P. , Davies, F. , Zhang, Y. , Barrett, L. , 2015. The impact of classroom design on pupils' learning: final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Build. Environ. 89, 118- 133.

[8] Beaty, R.E. , Benedek, M. , Silvia, P.J. , Schacter, D.L. , 2016. Creative cognition and brain network dynamics. Trends Cognit. Sci. 20 (2), 87- 95.

[9] Benyus, J.M. , 2002. Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. Harper Perennial.

[10] Berman, D. , Golomb, J. , Walther, D. , 2017. Scene content is predominantly conveyed by high spatial frequencies in sceneselective visual cortex. PLoS One. 12 (12), e0189828.

[11] Berto, R. , 2005. Exposure to restorative environments helps restore attentional capacity. J. Environ. Psychol. 25 (3), 249- 259.

[12] Beute, F. , de Kort, Y.A.W. , 2014. Salutogenic effects of the environment: review of health protective effects of nature and daylight. Appl. Psychol.: Health and Well-being 6 (1), 67- 95.

[13] Bonghanoy, N. , Galvez, B. , Satorre, L. , Tapic, H. , Cabanilla, A. , 2024. Optimizing class decor: a grounded theory on student motivation in classroom environments. Int. J. of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research and Studies 4 (1), 1368- 1374.

[14] Bower, I. , Tucker, R. , Enticott, P.G. , 2019. Impact of built environment design on emotion measured via neurophysiological correlates and subjective indicators: a systematic review. J. Environ. Psychol. 66, 101344.

[15] Brielmann, A.A. , Buras, N.H. , Salingaros, N.A. , Taylor, R.P. , 2022. What happens in your brain when you walk down the street? Implications of architectural proportions, biophilia and fractal geometry for urban science. Urban Sci 6, 3.

[16] Browning, W. , Determan, J. , 2024. Outcomes of biophilic design for schools. Architecture 4 (3), 479- 492.

[17] Buchanan, P. , 2012. The big rethink Part 4: the purposes of architecture. Architect. Rev. 27 March 2012. Available online: architectural-review.com/archive/campaigns/the-big-rethink/the-big-rethink-part-4-the-purposes-of-archi-tecture.(Accessed 26 July 2024).

[18] Buras, N.H. , 2020. The Art of Classic Planning: Building Beautiful and Enduring Communities. Harvard University Press.

[19] Chatterjee, A. , 2014. The Aesthetic Brain. Oxford University Press.

[20] Coburn, A. , Kardan, O. , Kotabe, H. , Steinberg, S. , Hout, M. , Robbins, A. , MacDonald, J. , Hayn-Leichsenring, G. , Berman, M. , 2019. Psychological responses to natural patterns in architecture. J. Environ. Psychol. 62, 133- 145.

[21] Coburn, A. , Weinberger, A. , Chatterjee, A. , 2023. How architectural design influences emotions, physiology, and behavior. Chapter 10. In: Skov, M., Nadal, M. (Eds.), The Routledge International Handbook of Neuroaesthetics. Routledge, pp. 194-217.

[22] Coppey, L. , 2018. What does AlphaGo vs Lee Sedol tell us about the interaction between humans and intelligent systems? Medium, 15 March 2018. Available online: medium.com/point-ninenews/what-does-alphago-vs-8dadec65aaf. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[23] Cox, M. , 2005. The Pictorial World of the Child. Cambridge University Press.

[24] Crompton, A. , 2001. The fractal nature of the everyday environment. Environ. Plann. Plann. Des. 28 (2), 243- 254.

[25] Curl, J.S. , 2018. Making Dystopia: the Strange Rise and Survival of Architectural Barbarism. Oxford University Press.

[26] Determan, J. , Akers, M.A. , Albright, T. , Browning, B. , MartinDunlop, C. , Archibald, P. , Caruolo, V. , 2019. The Impact of Biophilic Learning Spaces on Student Success. Terrapin Bright Green LLC, New York, NY, USA. Available online: terrapinbrightgreen.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/TheImpact-of-Biophilic-Learning-Spaces-on-Student-Success-1-15-2020.pdf. (Accessed 26 July 2024).

[27] Díaz, A. , Fernández, A. , 2000. A pattern language for virtual environments. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 23 (3), 291- 309.

[28] Dickinson, D. , 2018. Everything is changing: but not architecture's "deep state". Archinect, 28 June 2018. Available online: archinect.com/features/article/150070952/everything-is-changing-but-not-architecture-s-deep-state.(Accessed 26 July 2024).

[29] Dutton, D. , 2003. Aesthetics and evolutionary psychology. In: Levinson, Jerrold (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook for Aesthetics. Oxford University Press.

[30] Edgerton, E. , McKechnie, J. , 2023. The relationship between student's perceptions of their school environment and academic achievement. Front. Psychol. 13, 959259.

[31] Elbaiuomy, E. , Hegazy, I. , Sheta, S. , 2019. The impact of architectural spaces' geometric forms and construction materials on the users' brainwaves and consciousness status. Int. J. Low Carbon Technol. 14 (3), 326- 334.

[32] Ellard, C. , 2015. Streets with no game. Aeon, 1 September 2015.Available online: aeon.co/essays/why-boring-streets-makepedestrians-stressed-and-unhappy. (Accessed 28 October 2024).

[33] Ellard, C. , 2020. Neuroscience, wellbeing, and urban design: our universal attraction to vitality. Psychological Research on Urban Society 3 (1), 6- 17.

[34] Feng, Z. , Hou, H. , Lan, H. , 2024. Understanding university students' perceptions of classroom environment: a synergistic approach integrating grounded theory (GT) and analytic hierarchy process(AHP). J. Build. Eng. 83, 108446.

[35] Fisher, T. , 2005. Architects behaving badly: ignoring environmental behavior research. Harv. Des. Mag. 21 (1), 1-3. Available online: keddycsi.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/architects-behaving-badly3.pdf. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[36] Flatman, B. , 2024. Is the lack of ornament in architecture a barrier to diversity? Build. Des. 24 April 2024. Available online: bdonline.co.uk/opinion/is-the-lack-of-ornament-inarchitecture-a-barrier-to-diversity/5128895. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[37] Frumkin, H. , Bratman, G.N. , Breslow, S.J. , et al., 2019. Nature contact and human health: a research agenda. Environ. Health Perspect. 125 (7), 1663.

[38] Gabriel, R.P. , Quillien, J. , 2019. A search for beauty/A struggle with complexity: Christopher Alexander. Urban Sci. 3 (2), 64.

[39] Gloor, P. , 2022. Happymeter. Center for Collective Intelligence. MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA.

[40] Goldberger, A.L. , 1996. Fractals and the birth of Gothic. Mol. Psychiatr. 1, 99-104. Available online: researchgate.net/publication/14100651_Fractals_and_the_birth_of_Gothic_Reflections_on_the_biologic_basis_of_creativity. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[41] Gorichanaz, T. , 2024. Bringing design patterns to life: applying Christopher Alexander's theory of living structure in HCI. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. 40 (22), 7214- 7232.

[42] Gorichanaz, T. , Lavdas, A.A. , Mehaffy, M.W. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2023. The impacts of online experience on health and wellbeing: the overlooked aesthetic dimension. Virtual Worlds 2, 243- 266.

[43] Grande, T.R. , 2020. Traditional architecture gives better sense of well-being than contemporary glass and steel buildings. NMBU Nor. Univ. Life Sci. Available online: partner. sciencenorway.no/architecture-nmbu/traditional-architecturegives-better-sense-of-well-being-than-contemporary-glass-andsteel-buildings/1631355. (Accessed 12 August 2024).

[44] Haney, C. , 2018. The psychological effects of solitary confinement: a systematic critique. Crime Justice 47, 365- 416.

[45] Hawes, Z. , Ansari, D. , 2020. What explains the relationship between spatial and mathematical skills? A review of evidence from brain and behavior. Psychonomic Bull. Rev. 27, 465- 482.

[46] Heathcote, E. , 2015. Ornament is the language through which architecture communicates with a broader public. Architect. Rev. 3 September 2015. Available online: architectural-review.com/essays/ornament/ornament-is-thelanguage-through-which-architecture-communicates-with-abroader-public. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[47] Heatherwick, T. , 2023. Boring buildings are making us ill — let's make London beautiful again. Standard, 24 October 2023. Available online: standard.co.uk/culture/thomas-heatherwick-boring-buildings-designer-wellness-b1115275.html. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[48] Hewitt, M.A. , 2025. Is architectural ornament necessary? J. Architect. Plann. Res. in press.

[49] Higuera-Trujillo, J.L. , Llinares, C. , Macagno, E. , 2021. The cognitive-emotional design and study of architectural space: a scoping review of neuroarchitecture and its precursor approaches. Sensors 21 (6), 2193.

[50] Hora, D. , 2020a. The first eight of Christopher Alexander's 15 fundamental properties of wholeness. Architexturez. Available online: patterns.architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-218794.(Accessed 28 July 2024).

[51] Hora, D. , 2020b. Nos. 9-15 of Christopher Alexander's 15 fundamental properties of wholeness. Architexturez. Available online: patterns.architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-218795.(Accessed 28 July 2024).

[52] Iba, T. , Sakai, S. , 2014. Understanding Christopher Alexander's fifteen properties via visualization and analysis. In: Baumgartner, Peter, Sickinger, Richard (Eds.), PURPLSOC Workshop 2014, Department for Interactive Media and Educational Technologies. Danube University Krems.

[53] Imms, W. , Byers, T. , 2017. Impact of classroom design on teacher pedagogy and student engagement and performance in mathematics. Learn. Environ. Res. 20, 139- 152.

[54] Jacobsen, T. , Schubotz, R.I. , Höfel, L. , von Cramon, D.Y. , 2006. Brain correlates of aesthetic judgment of beauty. Neuroimage 29 (1), 276- 285.

[55] Jiang, B. , 2022. Christopher Alexander's pursuit of living structure in cities. Buildings & Cities, 29 March 2022. Available online: buildingsandcities.org/insights/commentaries/christopher-alexander.html. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[56] Jin, S. , Peng, L. , 2022. Classroom perception in higher education: the impact of spatial factors on student satisfaction in lecture versus active learning classrooms. Front. Psychol. 13, 941285.

[57] Joye, Y. , 2007a. Fractal architecture could be good for you. Nexus Netw. J. 9 (2), 311- 320.

[58] Joye, Y. , 2007b. Architectural lessons from environmental psychology: the case of biophilic architecture. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 11 (4), 305- 328.

[59] Jun, S. , 2021. Machines imitating human thinking using bayesian learning and bootstrap. Symmetry 13, 389.

[60] Kaplan, S. , 1995. The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework. J. Environ. Psychol. 15 (3), 169- 182.

[61] Karakas, T. , Yildiz, D. , 2020. Exploring the influence of the built environment on human experience through a neuroscience approach: a systematic review. Frontiers of Architectural Research 9 (1), 236- 247.

[62] Kellert, S. , 2018. Nature by Design: the Practice of Biophilic Design. Yale University Press.

[63] Kellert, S.R. , Heerwagen, J. , Mador, M. (Eds.), 2008. Biophilic Design: the Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life. John Wiley.

[64] Khare, S.M. , Blanes-Vidal, V. , Nadimi, E.S. , Acharya, U.R. , 2024. Emotion recognition and artificial intelligence: a systematic review (2014-2023) and research recommendations. Inf. Fusion 102, 102019.

[65] Koch, A. , Schwennsen, K. , Dutton, T.A. , Smith, D. , 2002. The Redesign of Studio Culture: A Report of the AIAS Studio Culture Task Force. AIA, Washington, DC, USA.

[66] Kowaltowski, D.C.C.K. , Gonçalves, P.P. , Cleveland, B. , 2024. Better school architecture through design patterns. Learn. Environ. Res. 27, 619- 647.

[67] Lavdas, A. , 2024. Eye-tracking applications in architecture and design. Encyclopedia 4 (3), 1312- 1323.

[68] Lavdas, A. , Mehaffy, M. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2023. AI, the beauty of places, and the metaverse: beyond geometrical fundamentalism. Architectural Intelligence 2, 8.

[69] Lavdas, A.A. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2021. Can suboptimal visual environments negatively affect children's cognitive development? Challenges 12 (2), 28.

[70] Lavdas, A.A. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2022. Architectural beauty: developing a measurable and objective scale. Challenges 13 (2), 56- 2022.

[71] Lavdas, A. , Salingaros, N. , Sussman, A. , 2021. Visual Attention Software: a new tool for understanding the 'subliminal' experience of the built environment. Appl. Sci. 11 (13), 6197.

[72] Lavdas, A.A. , Sussman, A. , 2024. Applications of biometrics in architectural and environmental design. In: Kühn, S. (Ed.), Environmental Neuroscience. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 227-254.

[73] Leach, N. , 2022. In the mirror of AI: what is creativity? Architectural Intelligence 1, 15.

[74] Leafbox , 2024. Notes: the art and architecture of psychoterror. Leafbox, 22 January 2024. Available online: leafbox.com/notes-the-art-and-architecture-of-psychoterror/.(Accessed 28 October 2024).

[75] Leder, H. , Gerger, G. , Brieber, D. , Schwarz, N. , 2014. What makes an art expert? Emotion and evaluation in art appreciation. Cognit. Emot. 28 (6), 1137- 1147.

[76] Legény, J. , Špaček, R. , Hubinský T. , Benkovičová L. , 2024. A triangular architectural relation model among sustainability, beauty, and power. Frontiers of Architectural Research 13 (4), 699- 711.

[77] Li, R. , Yurizono, T. , Li, X. , 2022. Affective computing of multi-type urban public spaces to analyze emotional quality using ensemble learning-based classification of multi-sensor data. PLoS One 17 (6), e0269176.

[78] Lippman, P.C. , 2010. Evidence-Based Design of Elementary and Secondary Schools. John Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.

[79] López, Ó. , Murillo, C. , González, A. , 2021. Systematic literature reviews in kansei engineering for product design e a comparative study from 1995 to 2020. Sensors 21 (19), 6532.

[80] Macruz, A. , Bueno, E. , Sol, G. , Vega, J. , Palmieri, R. , Zhao, B. , 2024. Designing for well-Being: using facial micro-expression analysis and EEG biosensor to evaluate human responses to 2D biophilically-driven geometries. Frontiers of Architectural Research 13 (2), 219- 234.

[81] Malinin, L.H. , 2016. Creative practices embodied, embedded, and enacted in architectural settings: toward an ecological model of creativity. Front. Psychol. 6, 1978.

[82] Marcarini, M.F. , 2021. Pedarchitecture: which learning environments for the personalization of teaching and learning? An educational architecture for the schools of the future. In: Imms, W., Kvan, T. (Eds.), Teacher Transition into Innovative Learning Environments. Springer, Singapore, pp. 85-107.

[83] Marcus, L. , 2015. Ecological space and cognitive geometry: linking humans and environment in space syntax theory. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Space Syntax Symposium, vol. 124. UCL, London, pp. 1-9.

[84] McCoy, J.M. , Evans, G.W. , 2002. The potential role of the physical environment in fostering creativity. Creativ. Res. J. 14 (3-4) , 409- 426.

[85] Medhat-Assem, H. , Mohamed-Khodeir, L. , Fathy, F. , 2023. Designing for human wellbeing: the integration of neuroarchitecture in design e a systematic review. Ain Shams Eng. J. 14 (6), 102102.

[86] Mehaffy, M. , 2020. The impacts of symmetry in architecture and urbanism: toward a new research agenda. Buildings 10, 249.

[87] Mehaffy, M. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2012. Intelligence and the information environment. Metropolis. Available online: https://patterns.architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-172600. (Accessed 26 July 2024).

[88] Mehaffy, M. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2021. The surprisingly important role of symmetry in healthy places. Planetizen, 8 March 2021.Available online: planetizen.com/features/112503-surprisingly-important-role-symmetry-healthy-places.(Accessed 26 July 2024).

[89] Mehaffy, M.W. , Salingaros, N.A. , Lavdas, A.A. , 2023. The "modern" campus: case study in (Un)Sustainable urbanism. Sustainability 15, 16427.

[90] Meijers, J. , Harte, J.M. , Jonker, F.A. , Meynen, G. , 2015. Prison brain? Executive dysfunction in prisoners. Front. Psychol. 6, 43.

[91] Menzel, C. , Dennenmoser, F. , Reese, G. , 2020. Feeling stressed and ugly? Leave the city and visit nature! An experiment on self- and other-perceived stress and attractiveness levels. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health 17, 8519.

[92] Meusburger, P. , 2009. Milieus of creativity: the role of places, environments, and spatial contexts. Chapter 6. In: Meusburger, P., Funke, J., Wunder, E. (Eds.), Milieus of Creativity, Knowledge and Space, vol. 2. Springer, Dordrecht, Holland, pp. 97-153.

[93] Mouratidis, K. , Hassan, R. , 2020. Contemporary versus traditional styles in architecture and public space: a virtual reality study with 360-degree videos. Cities 97, 102499.

[94] Nalepa, G.J. , Palma, J. , Herrero, M.T. , 2019. Affective computing in ambient intelligence systems. Future Generat. Comput. Syst. 92, 454- 457.

[95] Newman, S.A. , Bhat, R. , 2009. Dynamical patterning modules: a "pattern language" for development and evolution of multicellular form. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 53 (5-6) , 693- 705.

[96] O'Connor, J.W. , O'Connor, C.B. , 2024. Elevating learning environments through biophilic and student centered designs. Preprint, 12 March 2024. Available online: https://cgdarch.com/wpcontent/uploads/2024/04/BHE-Assessment_3.14.pdf. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[97] Olsson, P. , 2023. Why Ugly Architecture Is Bad for Your Health. Architectural Uprising, 15 September 2023. Available online: architecturaluprising.com/studies/why-ugly-architecture-isbad-for-your-health/. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[98] OpenAI , 2023. GPT-4 technical report. arXivPublished March 15, 2023. Updated March 4, 2024. arxiv.org/abs/2303.08774.(Accessed 14 August 2024).

[99] Pang, C.Y. , Nadal, M. , Müller-Paul, J.S. , Rosenberg, R. , Klein, C. , 2013. Electrophysiological correlates of looking at paintings and its association with art expertise. Biol. Psychol. 93 (1), 246- 254.

[100] Paolo, G. , Gonzalez-Billandon, J. , Kégl, B. , 2024. Position: a call for embodied AI. In: Proceedings of the 41st International Conference on Machine Learning, vol. 235. PMLR, Vienna, Austria, 2024. Available online: https://openreview.net/pdf?idZe5admkWKgV. (Accessed 12 August 2024).

[101] Park, B.J. , Tsunetsugu, Y. , Kasetani, T. , Morikawa, T. , Kagawa, T. , Miyazaki, Y. , 2009. Physiological effects of forest recreation in a young conifer forest in hinokage town, Japan. Silva Fenn. 43 (2), 291-301. Available online: http: //infta.net/files/references/SilvaFennica-43-2-2009.pdf. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[102] Perez, C.E. , 2018. Artificial Intuition, Intuition Machine.

[103] Perez, C.E. , 2023. Artificial Empathy, Intuition Machine.

[104] Peters, T. , D'Penna, K. , 2020. Biophilic design for restorative university learning environments: a critical review of literature and design recommendations. Sustainability 12, 7064.

[105] Raede, D. , 2024. 15 fundamental properties of wholeness analyzer. GitHub. Available online: https://15properties.dannyraede.com. (Accessed 5 August 2024).

[106] Ramm, T.M. , Werwie, M. , Otto, T. , Gloor, P.A. , Salingaros, N.A. , 2024. Artificial intelligence evaluates how humans connect to the built environment: a pilot study of two experiments in biophilia. Sustainability 16 (2), 868.

[107] Rands, M.L. , Gansemer-Topf, A.M. , 2017. The room itself is active: how classroom design impacts student engagement. Journal of Learning Spaces 6 (1), 26- 33.

[108] Rashid, N. , 2016. Prolonged stress leads to serious health problems: preventive approaches. Int. J. Health Sci. 10 (1), VeVI. PMCID: PMC4791152. (Accessed 9 July 2024).

[109] Reber, R. , Schwarz, N. , Winkielman, P. , 2004. Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience? Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 8 (4), 364- 382.

[110] Rennix, A. , Robinson, N.J. , 2017. Why You Hate Contemporary Architecture. Current Affairs, 31 October 2017. Available online: currentaffairs.org/2017/10/why-you-hate-contemporary-architecture. (Accessed 9 July 2024).

[111] Riddle, J. , Schooler, J.W. , 2024. Hierarchical consciousness: the nested observer windows model. Neuroscience of Consciousness 2024 (1), niae010.

[112] Robinson, N.J. , 2021. When is the revolution in architecture coming? Current Affairs, 15 April. Available online: currentaffairs.org/2021/04/when-is-the-revolution-inarchitecture-coming. (Accessed 26 July 2024).

[113] Rosas, H.J. , Sussman, A. , Sekely, A.C. , Lavdas, A.A. , 2023. Usingeye tracking to reveal responses to the built environment and its constituents. Appl. Sci. 13, 12071.

[114] Ruggles, D.H. , 2018. Beauty, Neuroscience, and Architecture: Timeless Patterns and Their Impact on Our Well-Being. Fibonacci Press.

[115] Ryan, C.O. , Browning, W. , Clancy, J. , Andrews, S. , Kallianpurkar, N. , 2014. Biophilic design patterns: emerging nature-based parameters for health and well-being in the built environment. Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Research 8 (2), 62- 76.

[116] Saffaryazdi, N. , Wasim, S.T. , Dileep, K. , et al., 2022. Using facial micro-expressions in combination with EEG and physiological signals for emotion recognition. Front. Psychol. 13, 864047.

[117] Salama, A. , 1995. New Trends in Architectural Education: Designing the Design Studio. Tailored Text, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.

[118] Salingaros, N.A. , 2013. Unified Architectural Theory: Form, Language, Complexity. Sustasis Press, Portland, Oregon.

[119] Salingaros, N.A. , 2014a. Complexity in architecture and design. Oz Journal 36, 18- 25.

[120] Salingaros, N.A. , 2014b. Cognitive dissonance and non-adaptive architecture: seven tactics for denying the truth. Doxa 11, 100- 117.

[121] Salingaros, N.A. , 2015a. Alexander's fifteen fundamental properties. ArchDaily, 2 May 2015. Available online: https://patterns.architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-172521. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[122] Salingaros, N.A. , 2015b. Biophilia and healing environments. Healthy Principles for Designing the Built World. Terrapin Bright Green, LLC, New York, NY, USA.

[123] Salingaros, N.A. , 2017. What architectural education does to wouldBe architects. Common Edge, 8 June 2017. Available online: https://commonedge.org/what-architectural-education-doesto-would-be-architects/. (Accessed 9 July 2024).

[124] Salingaros, N.A. , 2019. The biophilic healing index predicts effects of the built environment on our wellbeing. J. Biourbanism 8, 13- 34.

[125] Salingaros, N.A. , 2020a. Symmetry gives meaning to architecture. Symmetry: Culture and Science 31 (3), 231- 260.

[126] Salingaros, N.A. , 2020b. Connecting to the world: christopher Alexander's tool for human-centered design. She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation 6 (4), 455- 481.

[127] Salingaros, N.A. , 2022. Architecture's abysmal ignorance. Artificial Intelligence reveals what experts deny. Critic, 24 November 2022. Available online: https://thecritic.co.uk/architecturesabysmal-ignorance/. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[128] Salingaros, N.A. , 2024. Architectural knowledge: lacking a knowledge system, the profession rejects healing environments that promote health and well-being. New Design Ideas 8 (2), 261- 299.

[129] Salingaros, N.A. , 2025. How architecture builds intelligence: lessons from AI. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction 9 (1), 2.

[130] Salingaros, N.A. , Sussman, A. , 2020. Biometric pilot-studies reveal the arrangement and shape of windows on a traditional façade to be implicitly 'engaging', whereas contemporary façades are not. Urban Sci 4 (2), 26.

[131] Salingaros, N.A. , West, B.J. , 1999. A universal rule for the distribution of sizes. Environ. Plann. Plann. Des. 26 (6), 909- 923.

[132] Scoditti, S. , Clavica, F. , Caroli, M. , 2011. Review of architecture and interior designs in Italian kindergartens and their relationship with motor development. Int. J. Pediatr. Obes. 6 (Suppl. 2) , 16- 21.

[133] Scopelliti, M. , Carrus, G. , Bonaiuto, M. , 2019. Is it really nature that restores people? A comparison with historical sites with high restorative potential. Front. Psychol. 9, 2742.

[134] Scott, J.C. , 1999. Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.

[135] Scruton, R. , 2009. The Modern Cult of Ugliness. UK Daily Mail, 2 December 2009. Available online: dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-1231948/Why-sordid-art-like-Tracey-Emins-led-cultugliness-Britain.html#ixzz2ev3-03Ds. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[136] Seresinhe, C.I. , Preis, T. , Moat, H.S. , 2015. Quantifying the impact of scenic environments on health. Sci. Rep. 5, 16899.

[137] Seresinhe, C.I. , Preis, T. , Moat, H.S. , 2017. Using deep learning to quantify the beauty of outdoor places. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4, 170170.

[138] Shegheva, S. , Goel, A. , 2024. Symmetry as an organizing principle for geometric intelligence. Preprint. Available online: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2004.07879v1. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[139] Silkin, L. , 2021. Biophilic design and the workplace. Available online: futureofworkhub.info/explainers/2021/4/7/biophilic-design-and-the-workplace. (Accessed 25 July 2024).

[140] Sourgins, C. , 2018. Les mirages de l'Art contemporain, Éditions de la Table Ronde, Paris, France.

[141] Stamey, J.W. , Honeycutt, T.L. , 2004. Christopher Alexander's fifteen properties applied to the design of communication. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Annual International Conference on Design of Communication: The Engineering of Quality Documentation (SIGDOC 04). Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 64-71.

[142] St-Jean, P. , Clark, O.G. , Jemtrud, M. , 2022. A review of the effects of architectural stimuli on human psychology and physiology. Build. Environ. 219, 109182.

[143] Stojanovich, L. , Marisavljevich, D. , 2008. Stress as a trigger of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun. Rev. 7, 209- 213.

[144] Sussman, A. , Hollander, J.B. , 2021. Cognitive Architecture: Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment, second ed. Routledge.

[145] Sussman, A. , Ward, J.M. , 2021. How biometric software is changing how we understand architecturedand ourselves. Common Edge, 8 June 2021. Available online: https://commonedge.org/how-biometric-software-is-changing-how-we-understandarchitecture-and-ourselves. (Accessed 25 July 2024).

[146] Sussman, A. , Ward, J.M. , Saunders, A. , 2019. The "primal pattern" for architecture is inus. Genetics of Design, 11 January 2019. Available online: https://geneticsofdesign.com/2019/01/11/the-primalpattern-for-architecture-is-in-us/. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[147] Tanner, C.K. , 1999. The influence of school architecture on academic achievement. J. Educ. Adm. 38 (4), 309- 330.

[148] Taylor, R.P. , 2006. Reduction of physiological stress using fractal art and architecture. Leonardo 39, 245- 251.

[149] Taylor, R.P. , 2021. The potential of biophilic fractal designs to promote health and performance: a review of experiments and applications. Sustainability 13, 823.

[150] Thomas, J.C. , 2002. Applying christopher Alexander's 15 properties of good design. Available online: truthtable.com/Fifteen_Princples.html. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[151] Thompson, D.W. , 1992. On Growth and Form, Revised Edition. Dover.

[152] Tzonis, A. , 2014. Architectural education at the crossroads. Frontiers of Architectural Research 3 (1), 76- 78.

[153] Ulrich, R.S. , 1993. Biophilia, biophobia and natural landscapes. In: Kellert, Stephen R., Wilson, Edward O. (Eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis. Island Press.

[154] Uncommon Creative Studio , 2024. Imagine the nation's favourite buildings stripped of their soul using AI. Medium, 10 April 2024. Available online: https://uncommon-creative-studio.medium.com/imagine-the-nations-favourite-buildings-stripped-of-their-soul-using-ai-5ae61eec639a. (Accessed 28 October 2024).

[155] Valentine, C. , Mitcheltree, H. , 2024. Architecture and bioethics: investigating the ethical implications of recent advances in the field of neuroarchitecture. Intell. Build. Int. 16 (1), 3- 9.

[156] Van Praag, H. , Kempermann, G. , Gage, F.H. , 2000. Neural consequence of environmental enrichment. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 1 (3), 191- 198.

[157] Weinberger, A.B. , Christensen, A. , Coburn, A. , Chatterjee, A. , 2021. Psychological responses to buildings and natural landscapes. J. Environ. Psychol. 77, 101676.

[158] West, E. , 2017. Classical architecture makes us happy. So why not build more of it? The Spectator, 15 March 2017. Available online: spectator.co.uk/article/classical-architecture-makes-us-happyso-why-not-build-more-of-it/. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[159] Wilkins, A.J. , 2018. Looking at buildings can actually give people headaches. Conversation 5. Available online: cnn.com/style/article/why-looking-at-buildings-can-give-peopleheadaches/index.html. (Accessed 13 August 2024).

[160] Wilson, A.D. , Golonka, S. , 2013. Embodied cognition is not what you think it is. Front. Psychol. 4.

[161] Xu, W. , Shegheva, S.K. , Goel, A. , 2024. Symmetry as a representation of intuitive geometry. Preprint. Available online: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2206.02019. (Accessed 28 July 2024).

[162] Yee, L. , Chui, M. , Roberts, R. , Issler, M. , 2024. McKinsey technology trends outlook 2024. McKinsey Digital, 16 July 2024. Available online: mckinsey.com/capabilities/mckinsey-digital/ourinsights/the-top-trends-in-tech#new-and-notable.(Accessed 12 August 2024).

[163] Yin, J. , Zhu, S. , MacNaughton, P. , Allen, J.G. , Spengler, J.D. , 2018. Physiological and cognitive performance of exposure to biophilic indoor environment. Build. Environ. 132, 255- 262.

[164] Zaidel, D.W. , 2010. Art and brain: insights from neuropsychology, biology and evolution. J. Anat. 216 (2), 177- 183.

[165] Zeki, S. , 2000. Inner Vision: an Exploration of Art and the Brain. Oxford University Press.

[166] Zhang, Z. , Fort, J.M. , Mateu, L.G. , 2024. Decoding emotional responses to AI-generated architectural imagery. Front. Psychol. 15, 1348083.

[167] Zhang, T. , Qi, Z. , Guan, W. , Zhang, C. , Jin, D. , 2023. Exploration of artificial intelligence for emotion recognition using physiological signals. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 17, 1251241.

[168] Zhong, W. , Schröder, T. , Bekkering, J. , 2022. Biophilic design in architecture and its contributions to health, well-being, and sustainability: a critical review. Frontiers of Architectural Research 11 (1), 114- 141.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s). Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Higher Education Press and KeAi.