System-level design and cost drivers for industrial water electrolysis anodes

Abstract

Green hydrogen production by water electrolysis still faces a major gap between excellent laboratory catalyst performance and practical industrial economics. Although significant progress has been made in oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalysts, improvements in intrinsic activity do not necessarily translate into meaningful cost reductions in real electrolyzer systems. In this review, the “Scale-up Paradox” is discussed from the perspective of the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). Three key engineering challenges that determine industrial performance and cost are highlighted: manufacturing scalability and interfacial stability during electrode scale-up; gas–liquid mass transport limitations under high current densities; and chemical and mechanical degradation under dynamic start–stop operation driven by intermittent renewable electricity. The influence of different optimization strategies on LCOH is further analyzed from a techno-economic perspective. The analysis shows that improving mass transport and extending stack lifetime under dynamic operation can provide much larger economic benefits than simply reducing catalyst material costs. Based on these insights, key design considerations for next-generation industrial OER electrodes are outlined, with emphasis on dynamic durability, scalable manufacturing, efficient mass transport under high-current operation, non-destructive operando diagnostics, and in situ regeneration strategies for industrial electrolyzers. This review aims to establish a techno-economic framework for the development of economically viable gigawatt-scale water electrolysis systems.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

green hydrogen / oxygen evolution reaction (OER) / structural amorphization / industrial-scale electrolysis / levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH)

References

[1] Chu S , Majumdar A . Opportunities and challenges for a sustainable energy future. Nature, 2012, 488(7411): 294–303

[2] Reznicek E P , Koleva M N , King J . et al. Techno-economic analysis of low-carbon hydrogen production pathways for decarbonizing steel and ammonia production. Cell Reports Sustainability, 2025, 2(4): 100338

[3] Lagadec M F , Grimaud A . Water electrolysers with closed and open electrochemical systems. Nature Materials, 2020, 19(11): 1140–1150

[4] Ng J W D , García-Melchor M , Bajdich M . et al. Gold-supported cerium-doped NiO_x catalysts for water oxidation. Nature Energy, 2016, 1(5): 16053

[5] Nguyen K N , Tran T N N , Tran K T T . et al. Mott–Schottky Au/Co₃O₄ decorated on a carbon cloth substrate as an efficiently bifunctional electrocatalyst for hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions. Energy Material Advances, 2025, 6: 0162

[6] Amano F , Tsushiro K . Proton exchange membrane photoelectrochemical cell for water splitting under vapor feeding. Energy Materials, 2024, 4(1): 400006

[7] Zheng Y R , Vernieres J , Wang Z B . et al. Monitoring oxygen production on mass-selected iridium–tantalum oxide electrocatalysts. Nature Energy, 2022, 7(1): 55–64

[8] Yang G P , Yang T X , Wang Z G . et al. Targeted doping induces interfacial orientation for constructing surface-functionalized Schottky junctions to coordinate redox reactions in water electrolysis. Advanced Powder Materials, 2024, 3(5): 100224

[9] Rong C L , Wang S H , Shen X . et al. Defect-balanced active and stable Co₃O_4−x for proton exchange membrane water electrolysis at ampere-level current density. Energy & Environmental Science, 2024, 17(12): 4196–4204

[10] Kang J X , Qiu X Y , Hu Q . et al. Valence oscillation and dynamic active sites in monolayer NiCo hydroxides for water oxidation. Nature Catalysis, 2021, 4(12): 1050–1058

[11] Cai Z , Li L D , Ding P J . et al. High-valence Cu induced by photoelectric reconstruction for dynamically stable oxygen evolution sites. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2024, 146(28): 19295–19302

[12] Liu J Z , Guo L . In situ self-reconstruction inducing amorphous species: A key to electrocatalysis. Matter, 2021, 4(9): 2850–2873

[13] Hou Z Q , Cui C H , Li Y N . et al. Lattice-strain engineering for heterogeneous electrocatalytic oxygen evolution reaction. Advanced Materials, 2023, 35(39): 2209876

[14] Wang Y , Yuan Z J , Cen Z Y . et al. Site-specific Ir single atoms in spinel induce 5d spin polarization for enhanced oxygen evolution. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2026, 65(29): e2500154

[15] Seh Z W , Kibsgaard J , Dickens C F . et al. Combining theory and experiment in electrocatalysis: Insights into materials design. Science, 2017, 355(6321): eaad4998

[16] Yang G P , Yun S N , Yang T X . et al. Designing a Schottky coupled p–n junction to enhance the kinetic behavior of the oxygen evolution reaction. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2024, 12(3): 1804–1815

[17] Wei X Y , Sharma S , Waeber A . et al. Comparative life cycle analysis of electrolyzer technologies for hydrogen production: Manufacturing and operations. Joule, 2024, 8(12): 3347–3372

[18] Wang J , Kim S J , Liu J P . et al. Redirecting dynamic surface restructuring of a layered transition metal oxide catalyst for superior water oxidation. Nature Catalysis, 2021, 4(3): 212–222

[19] Aminaho E N , Aminaho N S , Aminaho F . Techno-economic assessments of electrolyzers for hydrogen production. Applied Energy, 2025, 399: 126515

[20] Freire Ordóñez D , Ganzer C , Halfdanarson T . et al. Quantifying global costs of reliable green hydrogen. Energy Advances, 2023, 2(12): 2042–2054

[21] Sun H N , Xu X M , Kim H . et al. Electrochemical water splitting: Bridging the gaps between fundamental research and industrial applications. Energy & Environmental Materials, 2023, 6(5): e12441

[22] Wang L N , Pan Q Z , Liang X . et al. Ensuring stability of anode catalysts in PEMWE: From material design to practical application. ChemSusChem, 2025, 18(1): e202401220

[23] Hurtado L , Leonide A , Ulmer U . Efficiency, cost and sustainability: Electrocatalysts for state-of-the-art and emerging electrolysis technologies. Sustainability, 2026, 18(6): 2866

[24] Saputro E D , Juangsa F B . Techno-economic assessment of green hydrogen production via PEM electrolysis and integrated water treatment using hydropower energy. Clean Energy, 2025, 9(6): 81–95

[25] Liu Y Y , Cao R , Zhang H . et al. Life cycle sustainability and techno-economic trade-offs of hydrogen from PEM electrolysis: A comparative study of power sources. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2026, 14(8): 4093–4105

[26] Seijas-Da Silva A , Hartert A , Oestreicher V . et al. Scalable synthesis of NiFe-layered double hydroxide for efficient anion exchange membrane electrolysis. Nature Communications, 2025, 16(1): 6138

[27] Li Z H , Lin G X , Wang L Q . et al. Seed-assisted formation of NiFe anode catalysts for anion exchange membrane water electrolysis at industrial-scale current density. Nature Catalysis, 2024, 7(8): 944–952

[28] Wu L Z , Wang Q , Yuan S . et al. Bubble dynamics matters at high-rate water electrolysis. Nature Communications, 2026, 17(1): 2305

[29] Shaik S , Kim J , Kabiraz M K . et al. Rapid outgassing of hydrophilic TiO₂ electrodes achieves long-term stability of anion exchange membrane water electrolyzers. Nano-Micro Letters, 2025, 17(1): 186

[30] He W J , Wang Y S , Zhao Y L . et al. Heterointerface-enabled anti-reverse-current electrodes for alkaline water electrolyzers at 1000 mA cm^–2. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2026, 148(5): 5232–5242

[31] Proost J . State-of-the art CAPEX data for water electrolysers, and their impact on renewable hydrogen price settings. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2019, 44(9): 4406–4413

[32] Curcio E . Techno-economic analysis of hydrogen production: Costs, policies, and scalability in the transition to net-zero. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2025, 128: 473–487

[33] Pivovar B , Rustagi N , Satyapal S . Hydrogen at scale (H₂@Scale): Key to a clean, economic, and sustainable energy system. The Electrochemical Society Interface, 2018, 27(1): 47–52

[34] Zhang Q , Hao Y W , Chen H J . et al. Toward energy-efficient alkaline water electrolysis: Advances in mass transport optimization and electrolyzer design. Advanced Energy Materials, 2026, 16(1): e04039

[35] Maoulida F , Guilbert D , Camara M B . et al. Dynamic electrical degradation of PEM electrolyzers under renewable energy intermittency: Mechanisms, diagnostics, and mitigation strategie—A comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2026, 225: 116170

[36] Xu Z C , Liang Y , Yuan S S . et al. Scalable and straightforward synthesis of electrocatalysts for green hydrogen economy via high-current-density alkaline water splitting. National Science Review, 2025, 12(11): nwaf417

[37] Huang Q B , Zhang X , Lin S W . et al. Corrosion engineering for electrode fabrication toward alkaline water electrolysis. Chemical Synthesis, 2025, 5(3): 57

[38] Yang D R , Zhang C Y , Qin Y F . et al. Single-faceted IrO₂ monolayer enabling high-performing proton exchange membrane water electrolysis beyond 10,000 h stability at 1.5 A cm⁻². Nature Communications, 2025, 16(1): 7236

[39] Higashi S , Beniya A . Ultralight conductive IrO₂ nanostructured textile enables highly efficient hydrogen and oxygen evolution reaction: Importance of catalyst layer sheet resistance. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2023, 321: 122030

[40] Gao Y H , Yu H , Wang W H . et al. Roadmap toward next-generation proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers. Joule, 2026, 10(3): 102337

[41] Kang J X , Yang X Y , Hu Q . et al. Recent progress of amorphous nanomaterials. Chemical Reviews, 2023, 123(13): 8859–8941

[42] Niu H J , Ran N , Zhou W . et al. Synergistic atomic environment optimization of nickel–iron dual sites by Co doping and Cr vacancy for electrocatalytic oxygen evolution. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2025, 147(3): 2607–2615

[43] Wu B , Liu X C , Liu P G . et al. Synthesis of amorphous metal oxides via a crystalline to amorphous phase transition strategy. Nature Synthesis, 2025, 4(3): 370–379

[44] Lin C , Li J L , Li X P . et al. In-situ reconstructed Ru atom array on α-MnO₂ with enhanced performance for acidic water oxidation. Nature Catalysis, 2021, 4(12): 1012–1023

[45] Lee J , Kim S , Kim J Y . et al. Ultralow interface resistance in porous transport electrode for efficient polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis at low Ir loading. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 524: 168556

[46] Zhang Z P , Yao M H , Huang R X . et al. Positive feedback mechanism of stability degradation of the IrO₂/TiO₂ electrocatalyst induced by inferior catalytic activity. Energy & Fuels, 2025, 39(3): 1735–1745

[47] García-Salaberri P A , van Eijk L , Bangay W . et al. Materials engineering for high performance and durability proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers. ACS Applied Energy Materials, 2025, 8(18): 13050–13121

[48] Zhao J , Liu H Y , Li X G . Structure, property, and performance of catalyst layers in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Electrochemical Energy Reviews, 2023, 6(1): 13

[49] Park J , Kang Z Y , Bender G . et al. Roll-to-roll production of catalyst coated membranes for low-temperature electrolyzers. Journal of Power Sources, 2020, 479: 228819

[50] Du X M , Sun Y H , Cui J W . et al. Covalency regulation of Ru-based solid solutions by iridium for durable proton exchange membrane water electrolysis at 2 A cm⁻². Advanced Functional Materials, 2025, 35(42): 2506203

[51] Zhang X , Tong L , Huang Q B . et al. Substrate-adaptive sacrificial corrosion strategy enables 700 mV oxygen evolution window for enhanced seawater electrolysis. Nature Communications, 2025, 17(1): 757

[52] Du P , Deng B H , He X . et al. Roll-to-roll flash joule heating to stabilize electrocatalysts onto meter-scale Ni foam for advanced water splitting. ACS Nano, 2025, 19(1): 1327–1339

[53] Mu L H , Liu Q H , Li J H . et al. Self-supported electrodes for efficient water splitting: Integrating wettability with multidimensional engineering. Materials Today Physics, 2026, 60: 101977

[54] Li T S , Liu W , Xin H J . et al. Large-scale and simple synthesis of NiFe(OH)_x electrode derived from Raney Ni precursor for efficient alkaline water electrolyzer. Catalysts, 2024, 14(5): 296

[55] Yan Z H , Liu H H , Hao Z M . et al. Electrodeposition of (hydro)oxides for an oxygen evolution electrode. Chemical Science, 2020, 11(39): 10614–10625

[56] Yang H P , Sun Z F , Zhao Y H . et al. Flash joule heating-induced spinel-phase surface in Ni-rich layered oxide positive electrodes to stabilise lattice oxygen. Nature Communications, 2026, 17(1): 4008

[57] Li C F , Xie L J , Zhao J W . et al. Interfacial Fe−O−Ni−O−Fe bonding regulates the active Ni sites of Ni-MOFs via iron doping and decorating with FeOOH for super-efficient oxygen evolution. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2022, 61(17): e202116934

[58] Kim J , Seo J H , Lee J K . et al. Challenges and strategies in catalysts design towards efficient and durable alkaline seawater electrolysis for green hydrogen production. Energy Materials, 2025, 5(7): 500076

[59] Ehlers J C , Feidenhans’l A A , Therkildsen K T . et al. Affordable green hydrogen from alkaline water electrolysis: Key research needs from an industrial perspective. ACS Energy Letters, 2023, 8(3): 1502–1509

[60] Han B H , Stoerzinger K A , Tileli V . et al. Nanoscale structural oscillations in perovskite oxides induced by oxygen evolution. Nature Materials, 2017, 16(1): 121–126

[61] Lee J K , Bazylak A . Bubbles: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Joule, 2021, 5(1): 19–21

[62] Wu Q R , Wang H , Lang Y W . et al. 3D microporous structure with tunable surface roughness enables fast bubble dynamics for efficient water splitting. Small Methods, 2025, 9(9): e01245

[63] Loh A , Li X H , Sluijter S . et al. Design and scale-up of zero-gap AEM water electrolysers for hydrogen production. Hydrogen, 2023, 4(2): 257–271

[64] Kim J H , Jo H J , Han S M . et al. Recent advances in electrocatalysts for anion exchange membrane water electrolysis: Design strategies and characterization approaches. Energy Materials, 2025, 5(8): 500099

[65] Rocha F , Georgiadis C , Van Droogenbroek K . et al. Proton exchange membrane-like alkaline water electrolysis using flow-engineered three-dimensional electrodes. Nature Communications, 2024, 15(1): 7444

[66] Kim Y J , Lim A , Kim J M . et al. Highly efficient oxygen evolution reaction via facile bubble transport realized by three-dimensionally stack-printed catalysts. Nature Communications, 2020, 11(1): 4921

[67] Tuleushova N , Holade Y , Cornu D . et al. Glycerol electro-reforming in alkaline electrolysis cells for the simultaneous production of value-added chemicals and pure hydrogen – Mini-review. Electrochemical Science Advances, 2023, 3(2): e2100174

[68] Woodward S , McLarty D , Dutta P . Pressurized solid oxide electrolysis—Operational strategies. Fuel Cells, 2026, 26(2): e70078

[69] Bleeker J , van Kasteren C , van Ommen J R . et al. Gas bubble removal from a zero-gap alkaline electrolyser with a pressure swing and why foam electrodes might not be suitable at high current densities. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2024, 57: 1398–1407

[70] Jiang R L , Wang Z , Wang H . et al. Enhanced bubble dynamics via P-site–induced Cu nucleation on NiFe-based array electrodes for efficient oxygen evolution. Chemical Engineering Science, 2026, 325: 123510

[71] Chen H , Li J L , Sun K . et al. Atomic-mesoscale synergy in amorphous iridium oxide catalysts for proton exchange membrane water electrolysis. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2026, 65(14): e5206101

[72] Zhao C F , Yuan S , Cheng X J . et al. Agglomerate engineering to boost PEM water electrolyzer performance. Advanced Energy Materials, 2024, 14(41): 2401588

[73] Ding S W , Li Z H , Lin G X . et al. Post-selenium-leaching induced fast micro-bubble detachment on nickel-iron-based OER catalyst for efficient AEM-WE. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2025, 64(51): e202517132

[74] Suermann M , Schmidt T J , Büchi F N . Investigation of mass transport losses in polymer electrolyte electrolysis cells. ECS Transactions, 2015, 69(17): 1141–1148

[75] Ding S W , Li Z H , Lin G X . et al. Enhancing mass transfer in anion exchange membrane water electrolysis by overlaid nickel mesh substrate. ACS Energy Letters, 2024, 9(8): 3719–3726

[76] Zhang J Y , Yue K H , Zhao Y Q . et al. Mesoporous ruthenium titanium oxide solid solution with efficient three phase reaction interface for water electrolysis. Nature Communications, 2026, 17(1): 3752

[77] Wei C Y , Liu C , Zhang Z Y . et al. Dynamic template reconstruction induced mesoporous iridium catalysts for high-current-density PEMWE. Joule, 2025, 9(9): 102058

[78] Shen X R , Chen X Y , Jin H B . et al. Crystal lattice distortion in Se-doped CoMoO₄ inducing highly active γ-CoOOH species for efficient water oxidation. Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy, 2025, 378: 125592

[79] Kang J X , Liu G , Hu Q . et al. Parallel nanosheet arrays for industrial oxygen production. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2023, 145(46): 25143–25149

[80] Wang K , Li B X , Zhou Z K . et al. Earthing-inspired nanoparticle-filled nanosheet arrays for robust and efficient electrochemical gas evolution catalysis. Advanced Materials, 2026, 38(11): e14596

[81] Moulaee K , Aricò A S , Zignani S C . et al. Development of a highly performing anion exchange membrane electrolyser: A comparative analysis of cell configurations. Electrochimica Acta, 2026, 571: 149123

[82] Feng Y , Wang H , Feng K . et al. Atomic manipulation to create high-valent Fe⁴⁺ for efficient and ultrastable oxygen evolution at industrial-level current density. ACS Nano, 2024, 18(42): 28924–28935

[83] Zhao C K , Ding Z Y , Lei L M . et al. Synergistic kinetics acceleration and mass transport by nanocone-nanoneedle hierarchical electrodes for efficient anion exchange membrane water electrolysis. Advanced Functional Materials, 2026, 36(8): e13731

[84] Guo Z W , Zhang C H , Zhao Y J . et al. Quasi-chimney electrode boosts hydrogen evolution reaction via polarized Laplace pressure. Advanced Materials, 2026, 38(17): e72666

[85] Zhang C H , Xu Z , Han N N . et al. Superaerophilic/superaerophobic cooperative electrode for efficient hydrogen evolution reaction via enhanced mass transfer. Science Advances, 2023, 9(3): eadd6978

[86] Wan L , Lin D C , Liu J . et al. Interfacial and vacancy engineering on 3D-interlocked anode catalyst layer for achieving ultralow voltage in anion exchange membrane water electrolyzer. ACS Nano, 2024, 18(34): 22901–22916

[87] Krishnan S , Koning V , Theodorus de Groot M . et al. Present and future cost of alkaline and PEM electrolyser stacks. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2023, 48(83): 32313–32330

[88] Martinez Lopez V A , Ziar H , Haverkort J W . et al. Dynamic operation of water electrolyzers: A review for applications in photovoltaic systems integration. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2023, 182: 113407

[89] Endrődi B , Trapp C A , Szén I . et al. Challenges and opportunities of the dynamic operation of PEM water electrolyzers. Energies, 2025, 18(9): 2154

[90] Wang G Z , Li H Y , Babbe F . et al. Probing electrode transformation under dynamic operation for alkaline water electrolysis. Advanced Energy Materials, 2025, 15(28): 2500886

[91] Sayed-Ahmed H , Keller R , Toldy Á I . et al. Data-driven degradation analysis of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer stacks under dynamic load operation. Energy and AI, 2026, 25: 100790

[92] Shen W , Gao F Y , Sun X G . et al. Proton–electron temporal asynchrony on femtosecond timescales enables anti-corrosive low-iridium anodes for PEM electrolysers. Nature Nanotechnology, 2026, 21(4): 598–605

[93] Li A L , Ooka H , Kong S . et al. Oxygen evolution electrocatalysis resilient to voltage fluctuations. Nature Sustainability, 2025, 8(12): 1533–1540

[94] Wen Q L , Liu T Y , Huang D J . et al. Reversible structural oscillation mediates stable oxygen evolution reaction. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2025, 64(36): e202509915

[95] Alia S M , Reeves K S , Cullen D A . et al. Simulated start-stop and the impact of catalyst layer redox on degradation and performance loss in low-temperature electrolysis. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2024, 171(4): 044503

[96] Ehlers J C , Larrazábal G O , Egelund S D . et al. Nickel anode evolution and mass loss during intermittent alkaline water electrolysis. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 525: 169990

[97] Ginsberg M J , Venkatraman M , Esposito D V . et al. Minimizing the cost of hydrogen production through dynamic polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer operation. Cell Reports Physical Science, 2022, 3(6): 100935

[98] Uchino Y , Kobayashi T , Hasegawa S . et al. Dependence of the reverse current on the surface of electrode placed on a bipolar plate in an alkaline water electrolyzer. Electrochemistry, 2018, 86(3): 138–144

[99] Görlin M , Chernev P , Ferreira de Araújo J . et al. Oxygen evolution reaction dynamics, faradaic charge efficiency, and the active metal redox states of Ni–Fe oxide water splitting electrocatalysts. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2016, 138(17): 5603–5614

[100] Kasian O , Geiger S , Li T . et al. Degradation of iridium oxides via oxygen evolution from the lattice: Correlating atomic scale structure with reaction mechanisms. Energy & Environmental Science, 2019, 12(12): 3548–3555

[101] Feng Y , Qian L S , Feng K . et al. Electronic backflow through oxygen bridge in RuO_x-graphdiyne for stable acidic water oxidation. Small, 2026, 22(3): e10570

[102] Wu Z Y , Chen F Y , Li B Y . et al. Non-iridium-based electrocatalyst for durable acidic oxygen evolution reaction in proton exchange membrane water electrolysis. Nature Materials, 2023, 22(1): 100–108

[103] Komiya H , Obata K , Gankhuyag T . et al. Redox-durable Co–Ni–Fe layered double hydroxide anode for stable oxygen evolution under industrially relevant cycling. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2026, 18(6): 9829–9840

[104] Kuai C G , Liu L P , Hu A Y . et al. Dissolved Fe species enable a cooperative solid–molecular mechanism for the oxygen evolution reaction on NiFe-based catalysts. Nature Catalysis, 2025, 8(6): 523–535

[105] Tan X Y , Zhang J , Xu C Y . et al. Fluctuation-tolerant non-precious bifunctional Ni–Co–B monolithic electrodes for industrial-scale anion exchange membrane water electrolysis. Energy & Environmental Science, 2026, 19(11): 3598–3611

[106] Zhou Y S , Xu T Z , Qiu T Y . et al. A “two-pronged” strategy boosting the activity and stability of nickel–iron catalysts toward anion exchange membrane water electrolysis. Carbon Energy, 2026, 8(3): e70140

[107] Gujela O P , Hofmann M , Chen D R . Stability and degradation of 2D materials based heterostructure electrocatalysts in electrochemical energy conversion. Solids, 2026, 7(2): 22

[108] McCluskey F M J , Denat A . The behavior of small bubbles generated by electrical current impulses over a wide range of applied pressures. Journal of Applied Physics, 1996, 80(4): 2049–2059

[109] Alavijeh A S , Khorasany R M H , Nunn Z . et al. Microstructural and mechanical characterization of catalyst coated membranes subjected to in situ hygrothermal fatigue. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2015, 162(14): F1461–F1469

[110] Pizzutilo E , Geiger S , Grote J P . et al. On the need of improved accelerated degradation protocols (ADPs): Examination of platinum dissolution and carbon corrosion in half-cell tests. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2016, 163(14): F1510–F1514

[111] Alia S M , Stariha S , Borup R L . Electrolyzer durability at low catalyst loading and with dynamic operation. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2019, 166(15): F1164–F1172

[112] Chung D Y , Lopes P P , Farinazzo Bergamo Dias Martins P . et al. Dynamic stability of active sites in hydr(oxy)oxides for the oxygen evolution reaction. Nature Energy, 2020, 5(3): 222–230

[113] Feng Y , Wang J H , Feng K . et al. Breathing mode in Nd-CoO_x for active and stable proton exchange membrane water electrolysis. Nature Communications, 2025, 16(1): 10998

[114] Nigbur F , Robinius M , Wienert P . et al. Levelised Cost of Hydrogen: Making the Application of the Lcoh Concept More Consistent and More Useful. Report No. 301/05-I-2023/EN. Berlin: Agora Industry and Umlaut, 2023,

[115] Kuckshinrichs W , Ketelaer T , Koj J C . Economic analysis of improved alkaline water electrolysis. Frontiers in Energy Research, 2017, 5: 1

[116] Reksten A H , Thomassen M S , Møller-Holst S . et al. Projecting the future cost of PEM and alkaline water electrolysers: A CAPEX model including electrolyser plant size and technology development. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2022, 47(90): 38106–38113

[117] Lin Y , Huang D J , Wen Q L . et al. Utilizing reconstruction achieves ultrastable water electrolysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2024, 121(50): e2407350121

[118] Zahra R , Moshtaghi M , Ruuskanen V . et al. Advances and challenges in intermediate temperature alkaline water electrolysis: A critical review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2026, 228: 116569

[119] Schofield L , Paren B , Macdonald R . et al. Dynamic optimization of proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers considering usage-based degradation. AIChE Journal, 2025, 71(1): e18635

Rights & permissions

Higher Education Press