Biomass-derived materials for next-generation solid-state batteries: From sustainable resources to advanced electrodes and electrolytes

Abstract

Biomass-derived materials are emerging as powerful enablers for sustainable solid-state batteries (SSBs), offering structurally tunable, chemically versatile, and environmentally benign alternatives to conventional battery components. This review critically examines recent advances in the use of bio-derived carbons, polymers, and composites across key SSBs elements, including electrodes, solid electrolytes, binders, and separators. Biomass-derived carbons produced via pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization, and molten-salt methods provide hierarchical porosity and controllable graphitization, enabling efficient ion transport, catalytic activity, and mechanical buffering in electrode architectures. Biopolymers such as cellulose, lignin, and chitosan serve as functional matrices for solid polymer and gel electrolytes, enhancing ionic conductivity, interfacial stability, and mechanical integrity, while their intrinsic microstructures can also template low-tortuosity inorganic ceramic electrolytes. In addition, bio-based binders, separators, and electrolyte additives help address critical challenges, including dendrite growth, polysulfide shuttling, and interfacial degradation. Remaining barriers, such as feedstock variability, impurity control, multifunctional performance trade-offs, and scalable processing, are discussed alongside emerging opportunities enabled by artificial intelligence-assisted materials design. By synthesizing fundamental design principles and recent progress, this review highlights how biomass-derived materials can accelerate the development of high-performance, safe, and truly sustainable next-generation SSBs.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

biomass / solid-state battery (SSB) / electrode / electrolyte / additive / binder / separator

References

[1] Janek J , Zeier W G . Challenges in speeding up solid-state battery development. Nature Energy, 2023, 8(3): 230–240

[2] Manthiram A , Yu X W , Wang S F . Lithium battery chemistries enabled by solid-state electrolytes. Nature Reviews Materials, 2017, 2(4): 16103

[3] Vijaykumar C J , Bulla S S , Chavan C . et al. Comprehensive review of solid-state batteries: Theoretical conceptualization to sustainable energy storage technologies. Journal of Energy Storage, 2026, 151: 120431

[4] Kalnaus S , Dudney N J , Westover A S . et al. Solid-state batteries: The critical role of mechanics. Science, 2023, 381(6664): eabg5998

[5] Xiao Y H , Wang Y , Bo S H . et al. Understanding interface stability in solid-state batteries. Nature Reviews Materials, 2020, 5(2): 105–126

[6] Wu F , Misra M , Mohanty A K . Challenges and new opportunities on barrier performance of biodegradable polymers for sustainable packaging. Progress in Polymer Science, 2021, 117: 101395

[7] Li K , Wang Y N , Gao B . et al. Conjugated microporous polyarylimides immobilization on carbon nanotubes with improved utilization of carbonyls as cathode materials for lithium/sodium-ion batteries. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2021, 601: 446–453

[8] Chen G W , Luo H Y . Effects of node with discontinuous hierarchical fibers on the tensile fracture behaviors of natural bamboo. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 2020, 26: e00228

[9] Chen G W , Luo H Y , Zhang Z . et al. Flexural deformation and fracture behaviors of the sandwich turtle rib bones with hierarchical woven fibers. Colloid and Interface Science Communications, 2020, 34: 100230

[10] Chen G W , Luo H Y , Luo S F . et al. Vertically oriented structure and its fracture behavior of the Indonesia white-pearl oyster. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 2017, 66: 211–223

[11] Chen G W , Luo H Y , Yang H Y . et al. Water effects on the deformation and fracture behaviors of the multi-scaled cellular fibrous bamboo. Acta Biomaterialia, 2018, 65: 203–215

[12] Chen G W , Gupta A , Mekonnen T H . Silane-modified wood fiber filled EPDM bio-composites with improved thermomechanical properties. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2022, 159: 107029

[13] Chen G W , Adibi A , Jubinville D . et al. Rubber-lignin-ammonium polyphosphate bio-composite foams: Fabrication, thermomechanical properties and flame retardancy. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2024, 280: 135884

[14] Zhang H , Li J B , Ren H Z . et al. A bio-based functional separator enables dendrite-free anodes in aqueous zinc-ion batteries. iScience, 2024, 27(7): 110237

[15] Gaele M F , Gargiulo P , Di Palma T M . Aluminum-air batteries with acidic bio-polymer gel electrolytes and wood-derived metal-free cathodes. Journal of Power Sources, 2025, 626: 235784

[16] Patnaik K S , Mantripragada B S , Badam R . et al. Bio-based poly(benzimidazole-co-amide)-derived N, O co-doped carbons as fast-charging anodes for lithium-ion batteries. Nanoscale Advances, 2024, 6(20): 5181–5192

[17] Singla G , Bera M K , Hait P . et al. Impact of biosynthesized heteroatom-doped α-MnO₂ nanocatalyst loading on the performance of nanocomposite bio-sponge air electrode for wearable and biodegradable zinc-air batteries. Journal of Energy Storage, 2025, 134: 118110

[18] Singla G , Kansay V , Sharma S . et al. Nanocomposite bio-sponge air-electrode biogenically derived from Plantago ovata for applications in wearable and biodegradable zinc-air batteries. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 2025, 45: e01558

[19] Aynard A , Billon L . A step towards sustainable bio-based solid polymer electrolytes for batteries: Terpene-based block copolymer-nanostructured self-assembly. European Polymer Journal, 2025, 228: 113788

[20] Del Olmo R , Palermo M F , Santino F . et al. Isosorbide bio-based gel polymer electrolyte: A sustainable material to design high-voltage lithium metal batteries. Materials Today Energy, 2025, 54: 102043

[21] Wang C L , Zhou M M , Zhou L T . et al. Bio-derived dimethyl itaconate: A sustainable, low-cost electrolyte additive for high-performance lithium batteries. Green Chemistry, 2025, 27(28): 8613–8624

[22] Zheng Z H , Cheng W K , Li X N . et al. Bio-based supramolecular dual-network gel electrolytes with synergistic mechanical robustness and ionic conductivity for high-performance flexible Zn-ion batteries. Energy Storage Materials, 2025, 82: 104563

[23] Yin S , Huang Y , Han J Q . et al. Cellulosic all-solid-state electrolyte for lithium batteries fabricated via bio-synthetic avenue. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2023, 254: 110566

[24] Liu B B , Huang Y , Wang J W . et al. Highly conductive locust bean gum bio-electrolyte for superior long-life quasi-solid-state zinc-ion batteries. RSC Advances, 2021, 11(40): 24862–24871

[25] Kretschmer K , Sun B , Xie X Q . et al. A free-standing LiFePO₄–carbon paper hybrid cathode for flexible lithium-ion batteries. Green Chemistry, 2016, 18(9): 2691–2698

[26] Hu Z L , Zhao X X , Wei G J . et al. Bio-derived nanocellulose separator synergizing interfacial desolvation and electrostatic shielding for high-rate and ultra-stable aqueous zinc–iodine batteries. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 520: 165728

[27] Chen H , Zhou L , Sun Y C . et al. Bio-inspired biomass hydrogel interface with ion-selective responsive sieving mechanism for corrosion-resistant and dendrite-free zinc-iodine batteries. Energy Storage Materials, 2025, 76: 104113

[28] Mohanty A K , Vivekanandhan S , Das O . et al. Biocarbon materials. Nature Reviews Methods Primers, 2024, 4(1): 19

[29] Qian K Z , Kumar A , Zhang H L . et al. Recent advances in utilization of biochar. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 42: 1055–1064

[30] Jain A , Balasubramanian R , Srinivasan M P . Hydrothermal conversion of biomass waste to activated carbon with high porosity: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2016, 283: 789–805

[31] Zhang L L , Zhao X S . Carbon-based materials as supercapacitor electrodes. Chemical Society Reviews, 2009, 38(9): 2520–2531

[32] Sevilla M , Mokaya R . Energy storage applications of activated carbons: Supercapacitors and hydrogen storage. Energy & Environmental Science, 2014, 7(4): 1250–1280

[33] Xi Y B , Yang D J , Wang Y Y . et al. Effect of structure of technical lignin on the electrochemical performance of lignin-derived porous carbon from K₂CO₃ activation. Holzforschung, 2020, 74(3): 293–302

[34] Wang F , Qi X T , Zhang H . et al. Innovative molten salt techniques for biomass valorization: Transforming biomass into advanced carbon materials. Carbon, 2025, 234: 119999

[35] Yang Y , Ma Y P , Lu C C . et al. Molten salt technique for the synthesis of carbon-based materials for supercapacitors. Green Chemistry, 2023, 25(24): 10209–10234

[36] Wang D C , Deng Y , Liu X W . et al. Recent advances on biomass-derived carbon materials-based electrochemical sensors. Molecules, 2025, 30(14): 3046

[37] Liu M R , Zhang K J , Si M Y . et al. Structural rigging of lignin precursors for customized porous and graphene-like carbons towards enhanced supercapacitive performance in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes. ChemElectroChem, 2019, 6(15): 3949–3958

[38] Long C L , Chen X , Jiang L L . et al. Porous layer-stacking carbon derived from in-built template in biomass for high volumetric performance supercapacitors. Nano Energy, 2015, 12: 141–151

[39] Sun L , Tian C G , Li M T . et al. From coconut shell to porous graphene-like nanosheets for high-power supercapacitors. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2013, 1(21): 6462–6470

[40] Zeng F M , Li Z , Li X Y . et al. Almond-derived origami-like hierarchically porous and N/O co-functionalized carbon sheet for high-performance supercapacitor.. Applied Surface Science, 2019, 467–468: 229–235

[41] Purkait T , Singh G , Singh M . et al. Large area few-layer graphene with scalable preparation from waste biomass for high-performance supercapacitor. Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1): 15239

[42] Ojha K , Kumar B , Ganguli A K . Biomass derived graphene-like activated and non-activated porous carbon for advanced supercapacitors. Journal of Chemical Sciences, 2017, 129(3): 397–404

[43] Zhang L Y , Wang M R , Lai Y K . et al. Oil/molten salt interfacial synthesis of hybrid thin carbon nanostructures and their composites. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2018, 6(12): 4988–4996

[44] Weng W , Jiang B M , Wang Z . et al. In situ electrochemical conversion of CO₂ in molten salts to advanced energy materials with reduced carbon emissions. Science Advances, 2020, 6(9): eaay9278

[45] Zhang G Y , Liu X , Wang L . et al. Recent advances of biomass derived carbon-based materials for efficient electrochemical energy devices. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2022, 10(17): 9277–9307

[46] Hernández-Rentero C , Marangon V , Olivares-Marín M . et al. Alternative lithium-ion battery using biomass-derived carbons as environmentally sustainable anode. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2020, 573: 396–408

[47] Yu K F , Wang B Y , Bai P M . et al. Wheat straw cellulose amorphous porous carbon used as anode material for a lithium-ion battery. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2021, 50(11): 6438–6447

[48] Mohit S A . Hard carbon anode derived from pre-treated bio-waste sugarcane bagasse for high capacity sodium-ion battery fabricated with bio-deFgradable porous polymer electrolyte. Journal of Energy Storage, 2024, 83: 110694

[49] Zhai X L , Feng J , Sun X C . et al. Nanodiamonds in bio-carbon anodes realizing high performances of sodium-ion batteries. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2023, 933: 167621

[50] Xie L J , Tang C , Bi Z H . et al. Hard carbon anodes for next-generation Li-ion batteries: Review and perspective. Advanced Energy Materials, 2021, 11(38): 2101650

[51] Shao W L , Shi H D , Jian X G . et al. Hard-carbon anodes for sodium-ion batteries: Recent status and challenging perspectives. Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research, 2022, 3(7): 2200009

[52] Dayarathne N K , Shi C R , Song X P . et al. Unlocking the potential of lignin for sodium-ion battery anodes: From biorefining to hard carbon engineering. Energy Storage Materials, 2025, 83: 104705

[53] Kim J , Yu D , Kim D . et al. Development of bio-graphite from waste coffee grounds via catalytic graphitization for sustainable Lithium ion batteries anodes. FlatChem, 2025, 51: 100867

[54] Wang C , Wang S , Tang L K . et al. A robust strategy for crafting monodisperse Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ nanospheres as superior rate anode for lithium ion batteries. Nano Energy, 2016, 21: 133–144

[55] Mao C Y , Ruther R E , Li J L . et al. Identifying the limiting electrode in lithium ion batteries for extreme fast charging. Electrochemistry Communications, 2018, 97: 37–41

[56] Li L Y , Jin G Y , Shen J . et al. Carbon aerogels: Synthesis, modification, and multifunctional applications. Gels, 2025, 11(7): 548

[57] Bakierska M , Lis M , Pacek J . et al. Bio-derived carbon nanostructures for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. Carbon, 2019, 145: 426–432

[58] Bakierska M , Kubicka M , Bielewski J . et al. Functionalized, bio-derived carbon-aerogel/Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ composites as anode materials for Li-ion batteries. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2024, 976: 173008

[59] Gao Y F , Zheng S H , Fu H L . et al. Three-dimensional nitrogen doped hierarchically porous carbon aerogels with ultrahigh specific surface area for high-performance supercapacitors and flexible micro-supercapacitors. Carbon, 2020, 168: 701–709

[60] Son H J , Cho Y R , Park Y E . et al. Flexible, compressible, versatile biomass-derived freestanding carbon monoliths as binder- and substrate-free tri-functional electrodes for solid-state zinc-air batteries and overall water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2022, 304: 120977

[61] Lv X D , Chen M , Kimura H . et al. Biomass-derived carbon materials for the electrode of metal–air batteries. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2023, 24(4): 3713

[62] Zhang J J , Zhao H P , Li J . et al. encapsulation of iron complex nanoparticles into biomass-derived heteroatom-enriched carbon nanotubes for high-performance supercapacitors. Advanced Energy Materials, 2019, 9(4): 1803221

[63] Liu H , Liu Y Y , Mehdi S . et al. Surface phosphorus-induced CoO coupling to monolithic carbon for efficient air electrode of quasi-solid-state Zn–air batteries. Advanced Science, 2021, 8(19): 2101314

[64] Kale A M , Lee S Y , Park S J . A comprehensive review of carbon-based air cathode materials for advanced non-aqueous lithium–air batteries. Energy Storage Materials, 2024, 73: 103874

[65] Wang M L , Li D R , Yao Y . et al. Effect of nitrogen dopant forms of biochar cathode on the discharge mechanism of Li-O₂ battery. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2021, 168(9): 090517

[66] Zhao T , Yao Y , Yuan Y F . et al. A universal method to fabricating porous carbon for Li-O₂ battery. Nano Energy, 2021, 82: 105782

[67] Qi K L , Lei R Y , Zhang F . et al. A simple pyrolysis of bio-wastes to prepare N, and P co-doped porous carbon for lithium-sulfur batteries. Materials Letters, 2023, 331: 133411

[68] Zeng T , Tang M , Luo L . et al. 1T-WS₂ nanosheet-modified biomass carbon as sulfur host for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Advanced Engineering Materials, 2023, 25(20): 2300542

[69] Zeng T , Chen R G , Chen K . et al. Electrostatic self-assembly Mxene@biomass porous carbon with superior cycle stability for lithium-sulfur batteries. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2023, 293: 126874

[70] Ranjith K S , Mohammadi A , Raju G S R . et al. V₂CT_x-MXene/winery waste derived carbon-VO₂/V₂C-MXene aerogel based high-performance cathode for quasi-solid-state Zn-ion batteries. Carbon, 2026, 248: 121152

[71] Mohana Selvi T , Brindha S , Mathan Kumar P . et al. Bio-based polymer electrolytes for electrochemical applications—An overview. Encyclopedia of Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment, 2024, 2: 591–604

[72] Wan J Q , Zhang J M , Yu J . et al. Cellulose aerogel membranes with a tunable nanoporous network as a matrix of gel polymer electrolytes for safer lithium-ion batteries. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2017, 9(29): 24591–24599

[73] Zhao J H , Zhang J J , Hu P . et al. A sustainable and rigid-flexible coupling cellulose-supported poly(propylene carbonate) polymer electrolyte towards 5 V high voltage lithium batteries. Electrochimica Acta, 2016, 188: 23–30

[74] Wu H L , Wang J L , Zhao Y . et al. A branched cellulose-reinforced composite polymer electrolyte with upgraded ionic conductivity for anode stabilized solid-state Li metal batteries. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 2019, 3(10): 2642–2656

[75] Xu D , Wang B R , Wang Q . et al. High-strength internal cross-linking bacterial cellulose-network-based gel polymer electrolyte for dendrite-suppressing and high-rate lithium batteries. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2018, 10(21): 17809–17819

[76] Gong S D , Huang Y , Cao H J . et al. A green and environment-friendly gel polymer electrolyte with higher performances based on the natural matrix of lignin. Journal of Power Sources, 2016, 307: 624–633

[77] Lin Y , Li J , Liu K . et al. Unique starch polymer electrolyte for high capacity all-solid-state lithium sulfur battery. Green Chemistry, 2016, 18(13): 3796–3803

[78] Chen Q , Ghosh A , Tang W . et al. Alpha-cyclodextrin-based polyrotaxane combining phytate lithium salt as a novel bio-based flame-retardant solid polymer electrolyte for all-solid-state lithium metal batteries. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 512: 162376

[79] Bouharras F E , Bakkardouch S , Boujnah M . et al. Green polycaprolactone-guar gum bio-composite electrolyte for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries: A combined experimental and DFT study. Journal of Power Sources, 2025, 656: 238079

[80] Liu L H , Chu L H , Jiang B . et al. Li_1.4Al_0.4Ti_1.6(PO₄)₃ nanoparticle-reinforced solid polymer electrolytes for all-solid-state lithium batteries. Solid State Ionics, 2019, 331: 89–95

[81] Aziam H , Ouarga A , Ettalibi O . et al. Phosphorylated cellulose nanofiber as sustainable organic filler and potential flame-retardant for all-solid-state lithium batteries. Journal of Energy Storage, 2023, 62: 106838

[82] Dai J Q , Fu K , Gong Y H . et al. Flexible solid-state electrolyte with aligned nanostructures derived from wood. ACS Materials Letters, 2019, 1(3): 354–361

[83] Xie H , Yang C P , Fu K . et al. Flexible, scalable, and highly conductive garnet-polymer solid electrolyte templated by bacterial cellulose. Advanced Energy Materials, 2018, 8(18): 1703474

[84] Chen C J , Zhang Y , Li Y J . et al. Highly conductive, lightweight, low-tortuosity carbon frameworks as ultrathick 3D current collectors. Advanced Energy Materials, 2017, 7(17): 1700595

[85] Zhang H , An X Y , Long Y Y . et al. A thin and flexible solid electrolyte templated by controllable porous nanocomposites toward extremely high performance all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 425: 130632

[86] Zhang H , An X Y , Lu Z H . et al. A three dimensional interconnected Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ framework composite solid electrolyte utilizing lignosulfonate/cellulose nanofiber bio-template for high performance lithium ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 2020, 477: 228752

[87] Bhowmick S , Das S , Kumar R R . et al. A simple synthesis of bio-based cathode catalyst of microbial fuel cell with bio-oil recovery through pyrolysis of defatted yeast-biomass. Renewable Energy, 2024, 237: 121763

[88] Chen Y , Xia Z F , Huang L . et al. Engineering multifunctional conductive carbon-based cathode additives to stabilize high-performance all-solid-state lithium metal batteries. Materials Today, 2025, 88: 368–381

[89] Chen T , Hu J Z , Zhang L . et al. High performance binder-free SiO_x/C composite LIB electrode made of SiO_x and lignin. Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 362: 236–242

[90] Chen Z , Xu Z Q , Li W L . et al. Cellulose-hydrogel-derived self-activated carbon/SnO₂ nanocomposites for high-performance lithium storage. ACS Applied Energy Materials, 2019, 2(7): 5171–5182

[91] Wu Y L , Snihirova D , Wang L Q . et al. Glutamate as a bio-compatible electrolyte additive for sustainable high-performance magnesium-air batteries. Energy Storage Materials, 2025, 80: 104365

[92] Park S J , Zhao H , Ai G . et al. Side-chain conducting and phase-separated polymeric binders for high-performance silicon anodes in lithium-ion batteries. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2015, 137(7): 2565–2571

[93] Wang H Q , Sencadas V , Gao G P . et al. Strong affinity of polysulfide intermediates to multi-functional binder for practical application in lithium–sulfur batteries. Nano Energy, 2016, 26: 722–728

[94] Tang Y X , Deng J Y , Li W L . et al. Water-soluble sericin protein enabling stable solid-electrolyte interphase for fast charging high voltage battery electrode. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(33): 1701828

[95] Ohkatsu Y , Matsuura T , Yamato M . A phenolic antioxidant trapping both alkyl and peroxy radicals. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2003, 81(1): 151–156

[96] Mili M , Hashmi S A R , Ather M . et al. Novel lignin as natural-biodegradable binder for various sectors—A review. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2022, 139(15): e51951

[97] Ma Y , Chen K , Ma J . et al. A biomass based free radical scavenger binder endowing a compatible cathode interface for 5 V lithium-ion batteries. Energy & Environmental Science, 2019, 12(1): 273–280

[98] Luo C , Du L L , Wu W . et al. Novel lignin-derived water-soluble binder for micro silicon anode in lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2018, 6(10): 12621–12629

[99] Wei L M , Chen C X , Hou Z Y . et al. Poly (acrylic acid sodium) grafted carboxymethyl cellulose as a high performance polymer binder for silicon anode in lithium ion batteries. Scientific Reports, 2016, 6: 19583

[100] Wei L M , Hou Z Y . High performance polymer binders inspired by chemical finishing of textiles for silicon anodes in lithium ion batteries. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2017, 5(42): 22156–22162

[101] Yousif N M , AbdelKader R M M , Gomaa O M . Fungal exopolysaccharides as a bio-binder for conductive pigment/reduced graphene oxide/nano-cobalt composite: An eco-friendly solution for anode rechargeable batteries. Bioelectrochemistry, 2026, 168: 109094

[102] Mahaninia M H , Rathi K , Yan N . et al. Self-healable chitosan-based polymer binder for anode in lithium-ion batteries. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2026, 528: 172151

[103] Kuribayashi I . Characterization of composite cellulosic separators for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 1996, 63(1): 87–91

[104] Zhang H , An X Y , Liu L Q . et al. Preparation of cellulose-based lithium ion battery membrane enhanced with alkali-treated polysulfonamide fibers and cellulose nanofibers. Journal of Membrane Science, 2019, 591: 117346

[105] Yu B C , Park K , Jang J H . et al. Cellulose-based porous membrane for suppressing Li dendrite formation in lithium–sulfur battery. ACS Energy Letters, 2016, 1(3): 633–637

[106] Zhang T W , Shen B , Yao H B . et al. Prawn shell derived chitin nanofiber membranes as advanced sustainable separators for Li/Na-ion batteries. Nano Letters, 2017, 17(8): 4894–4901

[107] Kim J K , Kim D H , Joo S H . et al. Hierarchical chitin fibers with aligned nanofibrillar architectures: A nonwoven-mat separator for lithium metal batteries. ACS Nano, 2017, 11(6): 6114–6121

[108] Zhang S J , Gao Z G , Wang W W . et al. A natural biopolymer film as a robust protective layer to effectively stabilize lithium–metal anodes. Small, 2018, 14(31): 1801054

[109] Li H , Wu D B , Wu J . et al. Flexible, high-wettability and fire-resistant separators based on hydroxyapatite nanowires for advanced lithium-ion batteries. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(44): 1703548

[110] Zhang J J , Yue L P , Kong Q S . et al. Sustainable, heat-resistant and flame-retardant cellulose-based composite separator for high-performance lithium ion battery. Scientific Reports, 2014, 4: 3935

[111] Xu Q , Kong Q S , Liu Z H . et al. Cellulose/polysulfonamide composite membrane as a high performance lithium-ion battery separator. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2014, 2(2): 194–199

[112] Zhang J J , Liu Z H , Kong Q S . et al. Renewable and superior thermal-resistant cellulose-based composite nonwoven as lithium-ion battery separator. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2013, 5(1): 128–134

[113] He D , Gu W , Liu X . et al. Biomimetic mineralization guided protein-based multifunctional bio-separators realizing dendrites free and high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2025, 700: 138498

[114] Wale A K , Das A K , Patil N R . et al. Methoxyl-containing hyper-crosslinked polymer from largely bio-based biphenyl methyl ether and its application in lithium-sulfur battery. Reactive and Functional Polymers, 2025, 207: 106139

[115] Feng Z X , Song Y , Liu M Y . et al. Inhibiting the shuttle effect in lithium-sulfur batteries: A bio-based approach with an alginate-graphene oxide composite separator. Sustainable Chemistry for Energy Materials, 2026, 3: 100029

[116] Yin L X , Xu G Y , Nie P . et al. MXene debris modified eggshell membrane as separator for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2018, 352: 695–703

[117] Arif M B , Yulianti E , Sabrina Q . et al. Preparation of bio-polyelectrolyte complex membrane from carboxymethylcellulose and chitosan as a selective alternative zinc-ion battery separator. Polymer, 2025, 323: 128181

[118] Garza Elizondo A M , del Valle Kessra I , Prates E T . et al. Building an expanded bio-based economy through synthetic biology. Biotechnology Advances, 2026, 87: 108775

[119] Rahmani M M , Esmaeili A . Bio-polyol production from sunflower oil influencing structure and properties by geographical origin and nucleophiles. Industrial Crops and Products, 2025, 235: 121649

[120] Agweh K , Snowdon M R , Mishra R K . et al. Production and characterization of waste nutshells derived biocarbon through slow pyrolysis: An investigation on the effects of pyrolysis temperature. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 2024, 14(22): 28619–28633

[121] Yang R , Lu H Y , Zhou J . et al. Next-generation biomass nanocomposites for heavy metal ion adsorption: Innovations and environmental impact. Separation and Purification Technology, 2025, 370: 133157

[122] Zhang H. Study on Preparation of Biomass-Templated Composite Solid-State Electrolytes and Their Lithium-Ion Transport Mechanism. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree. Tianjin: Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 2022 (in Chinese)

[123] Willstrand O , Yang Y , Andersson P . et al. Lab-scale versus industrial-scale thermal runaway tests for lithium-ion battery cells. Journal of Energy Storage, 2025, 129: 117275

[124] Li J Y , Yao H , Meng L L . et al. Enhanced photovoltaic performance of perovskite solar cells via biomass-derived porous carbon as passivator. Materials Letters, 2026, 407: 140058

[125] Kanjana N , Maisuwan P , Wechprasit T . et al. Biomass-derived rGO-like carbon from oil palm petioles integrated with NiO/PEDOT:PSS composites for counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells. Results in Engineering, 2026, 29: 108918

[126] Rabet S , Sharafi Laleh S , Rezaei Mousavi H S . et al. Solar- and biomass-assisted hybrid solid oxide fuel cell, thermophotovoltaic, and photovoltaic system for sustainable ammonia and synthetic natural gas production: Multi-objective LCA-TEA optimization. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 2026, 30: 101268

[127] Wang J L , Cao W H , Wang C . Lead-free organic-inorganic hybrid molybdenum-based perovskites with near-infrared emission. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 2026, 730: 138989

[128] Wang C , Wang J L , Cai X F . et al. Near-infrared luminescence of a novel zero-dimensional organic–inorganic hybrid molybdenum-based perovskite. Dalton Transactions, 2026, 55(1): 84–90

[129] Hammed V O , Salako E W , Edet D . et al. Next-generation lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles: Advanced materials, AI driven performance optimization, and circular economy strategies. Measurement: Energy, 2025, 7: 100060

[130] Wang X S , He N , Zhou Z D . et al. AI-driven exploration and design of inorganic battery materials. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2026, 229: 116633

[131] Li M , Zhang X Y , Zhu W P . et al. A novel dual neural network-based method for weed detection in cabbage fields. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 2026, 166: 113616

[132] Li M , Zhu W P , Zhang X Y . et al. Efficient weed detection in cabbage fields using a dual-model strategy. Agronomy, 2025, 16(1): 93

[133] Pushpa S R , Awoyale A A , Lokhat D . et al. Infrared-based machine learning models for the rapid quantification of lignocellulosic multi-feedstock composition. Bioresource Technology Reports, 2024, 25: 101747

[134] Malann D C , Ogungbemi A T , Edo G I . et al. Designing AI-powered user-centric platforms for energy consumption and carbon footprint reduction. Sustainable Chemistry One World, 2026, 9: 100175

[135] Xie E , Wang X J , Siepmann J I . et al. Generative AI for design of nanoporous materials: Review and future prospects. Digital Discovery, 2025, 4(9): 2336–2363

[136] Karimi E , Iglauer S , Azhar M R . Interface engineering and safety in solid-state batteries: Advancing from human-centered insights to AI-driven innovations. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2025, 346: 103686

[137] Huang Z J , Tong F , Chen G . et al. Prediction of lithium-ion battery states via combination of implantable sensors and machine learning. Journal of Energy Storage, 2026, 147: 120010

[138] Waseem M , Reddy K S , Rao T R . et al. Failure modes, safety concerns, testing protocol, and advancement in lithium-ion battery technology. Future Batteries, 2025, 8: 100113

[139] Zuiderveen E A R , Kuipers K J J , Caldeira C . et al. The potential of emerging bio-based products to reduce environmental impacts. Nature Communications, 2023, 14(1): 8521

[140] Rajendran S , Al-Samydai A , Palani G . et al. Replacement of petroleum based products with plant-based materials, green and sustainable energy—A review. Engineering Reports, 2025, 7(4): e70108

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press