The history of agriculture in the mountainous areas of the lower Yangtze River since the late Neolithic

Abstract

Understanding the role of agriculture in the development of human societies around the world is an important field of study with many unanswered questions. As a step toward that greater understanding, we have studied the archeobotanical remains at the Jingshuidun site in the mountainous areas of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in southern Anhui Province which are part of the core area of rice cultivation today. Our analyses of macrobotanical remains and phytoliths formed the basis for the reconstruction of the subsistence economy of ancient humans at the Jingshuidun site from the late Neolithic to early historical times. When our data are combined with that of previous archeobotanical work, we obtain a clearer picture of the development of rice and millet agriculture in the southern Anhui Province region, as well as the spread of millet cultivation. Macrobotanical remains and phytoliths of domesticated rice are present in layers at the Jingshuidun site dated to 4874–4820 cal. yr B.P. (middle-late Liangzhu Period) and 2667–2568 cal. yr B.P. (late Western Zhou Dynasty to the early Spring and Autumn Period). Moreover, macrobotanical remains and phytoliths from the site document the earliest remains of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) in southern Anhui Province, from a layer dating to the late Western Zhou Dynasty and the early Spring and Autumn Period (2667–2568 cal. yr B.P.). These results suggest that the people occupying the Jingshuidun site used single rice farming as far back as 4874–4820 cal. yr B.P., and they began to plant millet by at least 2667–2568 cal. yr B.P., documenting the spread of millet agriculture to the southern area by that time.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

southern Anhui / Jingshuidun site / rice / millet / phytolith

References

[1] Bao Y G, Zhou X Y, Liu H B, Hu S M, Zhao K L, Atahan P, Dodson J, Li X Q. (2018). Evolution of prehistoric dryland agriculture in the arid and semi-arid transition zone in northern China. PLoS One, 13(8): e0198750–

[2] Chen F H, Dong G H, Zhang D J, Liu X Y, Jia X, An C B, Ma M M, Xie Y W, Barton L, Ren X, Zhao Z J, Wu X H, Jones M K. (2015). Agriculture facilitated permanent human occupation of the Tibetan Plateau after 3600 B.P.. Science, 347(6219): 248– 250

[3] ChenL, Hu S M, YangM M, TangL Y, ZhaoZ J, HuK (2018). A review of science and technology archaeology in Shaanxi from 2008 to 2017. Archaeo Cultural Relics, 5: 170−192 (in Chinese)

[4] ChenX C, Hao S L (2013). A brief report on the excavation of Western Zhou Dynasty mound tombs in Longtou Mountain, Nanling, Anhui Cultural Relics, 10: 4−10+76 (in Chinese)

[5] ChengZ J, Qi M, ZengL, ZhangJ, YangY, LiQ(2020). Analysis of charred plant remains from the Jiazhuang and the Hougaolaojia sites, Xiangcheng city, Henan Province—on the primitive agriculture of Middle Yangshao Era in the east Henan Province. Acta Anthropol Sinica, 39: 825−836 (in Chinese)

[6] Crawford G W, Shen C. (1998). The origins of rice agriculture: recent progress in East Asia. Antiquity, 72(278): 858– 866

[7] Dai J Q, Cai X P, Jin J H, Ge W, Huang Y M, Wu W, Xia T Q, Li F S, Zuo X X. (2021). Earliest arrival of millet in the south China coast dating back to 5500 years ago. J Archaeol Sci, 129: 105356–

[8] Deng Z H, Hung H C, Fan X C, Huang Y, Lu H. (2018). The ancient dispersal of millets in southern China: new archaeological evidence. Holocene, 28(1): 34– 43

[9] Diamond J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature, 418(6898): 700– 707

[10] DingJ L(2004). The origin of rice paddy and rice cultivation in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in the Neolithic Age. Southeast Culture, 2: 19−23 (in Chinese)

[11] Fuller Q. (2011). Pathways to Asian civilizations: tracing the origins and spread of rice and rice cultures. Rice, 4(3): 78– 92

[12] Gao Y, Dong G H, Yang X Y, Chen F H. (2020). A review on the spread of prehistoric agriculture from southern China to mainland Southeast Asia. China Earth Sci, 63(5): 615– 625

[13] GongX C, Cheng P(1998). Excavation brief of Xiafengtang site in Shexian County. Cultural Relics Res, 13 (in Chinese)

[14] GrimmE C (1991). 1991: TILIA and TILIA. GRAPH. Springfield: Illinois State Museum

[15] He K Y, Lu H Y, Zhang J P, Wang C, Huan X J. (2017). Prehistoric evolution of the dualistic structure mixed rice and millet farming in China. Holocene, 27(12): 1885– 1898

[16] Huang Z G, Zhang W Q. (2002). More on the origin, development and propagation of rice cultivation in China. Trop Geogr, 22(1): 76– 79

[17] Iriarte J, Holst I, Marozzi O, Listopad C, Alonso E, Rinderknecht A, Montaña J. (2004). Evidence for cultivar adoption and emerging complexity during the mid-Holocene in the La Plata Basin. Nature, 432(7017): 614– 617

[18] LeS, WangW C (2007). Peace World Record. Beijing: The Commercial Press (in Chinese)

[19] Li H M, Liu Z, James N, Li X S, Hu Z J, Shi H W, Sun L Q, Lu Y, Jia X. (2021). Agricultural transformations and their influential factors revealed by archaeobotanical evidence in Holocene Jiangsu Province, eastern China. Front Earth Sci, 9: 387–

[20] LiX, ZhouX, ZhangH (2007). Rice remains recorded by archeological biological indices in northwest China at 5000 a B.P.. Chin Sci Bull, 52: 673−678 (in Chinese)

[21] LiY H(1979). Morphology and Anatomy of Graminaceous Crop. Shanghai: Shanghai Scientific & Technical Publishers (in Chinese)

[22] Jones M, Hunt H, Lightfoot E, Lister D, Liu X Y, Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute G. (2011). Food globalization in prehistory. World Archaeol, 43(4): 665– 675

[23] LiuX (1982). Agricultural research of Wu Kingdom. Agricul Archaeo, 2: 118−123 (in Chinese)

[24] LiuX L (2016). Archaeological study on crop distribution and assemblage in the pre-Qin and Han Dynasties. Acta Archaeol Sinica, 4: 465−494 (in Chinese)

[25] LiuX L (2017). Archaeological Study on Agriculture and Rural Settlements in the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties. Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House (in Chinese)

[26] Lu H Y, Liu Z X, Wu N Q, Berne S, Saito Y, Liu B Z, Wang L. (2002). Rice domestication and climatic change: phytolith evidence from east China. Boreas, 31(4): 378– 385

[27] Lu H Y. (2017). New methods and progress in research on the origins and evolution of prehistoric agriculture in China. Sci China Earth Sci, 60(12): 2141– 2159

[28] LuoW H, Xuan H L, YaoL, YangY Z, YiW W, KanX H, Zhang J Z, ZhangA B (2020). Starch grain evidence for plant utilization at Phase II of the Houjiazhai site in Dingyuan County, Anhui Province. Acta Anthropol Sin, 39(2): 292–305 (in Chinese)

[29] Miller N F, Spengler R N, Frachetti M. (2016). Millet cultivation across Eurasia: origins, spread, and the influence of seasonal climate. Holocene, 26(10): 1566– 1575

[30] Neumann K, Strömberg C A E, Ball T, Albert R M, Vrydaghs L, Cummings L S, the ICPT. (2019). International code for phytolith nomenclature (ICPN) 2.0. Ann Bot (Lond), 124(2): 189– 199

[31] OuyangX, Song Q(1975). New History of the Tang Dynasty. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company (in Chinese)

[32] PipernoD R (2014). Phytolyth Analysis: an Archaeological and Geological Perspective. New York: Elsevier

[33] QinL(2012). Plant archeological studies and prospects on the origin of agriculture in China. In: A Collection of Studies on Archaeology, 10: 260−315 (in Chinese)

[34] SimaQ (2008). The Records of the Grand Historian. Xi’an: Sanqin Press (in Chinese)

[35] Su B Q, Yin W Z. (1981). Questions about archeological cultural area types. Cultural Relics, 5: 10– 17

[36] TangL Y, Han K, MaM Z, ZhaoZ J (2020). The dispersals of crops: a study on the remains of carbonized plants in the Neolithic age at Longgangsi site in Hanzhong, Shaanxi Province. Quater Sci, 40(2): 512−524 (in Chinese)

[37] TanQ X (1982). The historical atlas of China. Volume 1: The Primitive Society, Xia, Shang, Western Zhou, the Spring and Autumn, Warring States period. Beijing: China Cartographic Publishing House (in Chinese)

[38] Wang C, Lu H Y, Gu W F, Zuo X X, Zhang J P, Liu Y F, Bao Y J, Hu Y Y. (2018). Temporal changes of mixed millet and rice agriculture in Neolithic-Bronze Age Central Plain, China: archaeobotanical evidence from the Zhuzhai site. Holocene, 28(5): 738– 754

[39] WangY J, Lu H Y(1993). Phytolith Research and Application. Beijing: Chinese Ocean Press (in Chinese)

[40] Wu Y, Wang C S. (2011). EDF phytolith analysis from Heying site, southeast China, Shang–Zhou Dynasties. Microsc Res Tech, 74(11): 1062– 1068

[41] Wu Y, Mao L M, Wang C, Zhang J P, Zhao Z J. (2016). Phytolith evidence suggests early domesticated rice since 5600 cal a B.P. on Hainan Island of South China. Quat Int, 426: 120– 125

[42] WuY, HuangW C, WangC S, Yang Y M, WangF, YaoZ Q (2007). Phytolith analysis of the Western Zhou Dynasty site at Huoqiuyantai, Anhui Province. Agricul Archaeo, 1: 56–59 (in Chinese)

[43] YanW M (1989). Discuss the origin of rice agriculture in China again. Agricul Archaeo, 2: 72−83 (in Chinese)

[44] YanW M (1997). New progress in studies on the origin of rice cultivation in China. Archaeology, 9: 71–76 (in Chinese)

[45] YangB C (1991). Discussion on the bronze ware of the State of Wu in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Southeast Culture, Z1: 86−91 (in Chinese)

[46] Yang X Y, Jiang L P. (2010). Starch grain analysis reveals ancient diet at Kuahuqiao site, Zhejiang Province. Chin Sci Bull, 55(12): 1150– 1156

[47] YangY Z, Xuan H L, YuanZ J, YaoL, ZhangJ Z, XuF(2016). Utilization of plant food resources at Miudun site in Anhui Province based on starch grain analysis. Quater Sci, 36: 1466−1474 (in Chinese)

[48] Zhang H, Bevan A, Fuller D Q, Fang Y M. (2010a). Archaeobotanical and GIS-based approaches to prehistoric agriculture in the upper Ying valley, Henan, China. J Archaeol Sci, 37(7): 1480– 1489

[49] Zhang J P, Lu H Y, Wu N, Li F, Yang X, Wang W, Ma M, Zhang X. (2010b). Phytolith evidence for rice cultivation and spread in Mid–Late Neolithic archaeological sites in central north China. Boreas, 39(3): 592– 602

[50] Zhang J P, Lu H Y, Gu W F, Wu N Q, Zhou K S, Hu Y Y, Xin Y J, Wang C. (2012). Early mixed farming of millet and rice 7800 years ago in the middle Yellow River region, China. PLoS One, 7(12): e52146–

[51] Zhang J, Wang X. (1998). Notes on the recent discovery of ancient cultivated rice at Jiahu, Henan Province: a new theory concerning the origin of Oryza japonica in China. Antiquity, 72(278): 897– 901

[52] ZhangZ H (1998). Prehistoric millet agriculture in the Yellow River Basin. Cultural Relics of Central China, 3: 5−11 (in Chinese)

[53] ZhaoH (1992). Wu Yue Spring and Autumn Period. Tianjin: Tianjin Ancient Books Press (in Chinese)

[54] ZhaoZ J(2018). New understanding on the origin of rice agriculture in China. Agricult Archaeo, 4: 7−17 (in Chinese)

[55] ZhaoZ J(2014). The process of origin of agriculture in China: archaeological evidence from flotation results. Quater Sci, 34: 73−84 (in Chinese)

[56] ZhaoZ J, Xu L G (2004a). The results and preliminary analysis of the experimental flotation of Zhouyuan site (Wangjiazui site). Cultural Relics, 10: 89−96 (in Chinese)

[57] ZhaoZ J (2004b). Floatation: the fieldwork method of Archaeobotanical. Archaeology, 272: 80–87 (in Chinese)

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Science (No. XDB26000000), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41877427), and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. 2018099). We also thank the reviewers for valuable comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript, and Thomas Stidham provided valuable and extensive editorial feedback on a previous draft.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2022 Higher Education Press 2022