The significance of small streams
Ellen WOHL
The significance of small streams
Headwaters, defined here as first- and second-order streams, make up 70%–80% of the total channel length of river networks. These small streams exert a critical influence on downstream portions of the river network by: retaining or transmitting sediment and nutrients; providing habitat and refuge for diverse aquatic and riparian organisms; creating migration corridors; and governing connectivity at the watershed-scale. The upstream-most extent of the channel network and the longitudinal continuity and lateral extent of headwaters can be difficult to delineate, however, and people are less likely to recognize the importance of headwaters relative to other portions of a river network. Consequently, headwaters commonly lack the legal protections accorded to other portions of a river network and are more likely to be significantly altered or completely obliterated by land use.
headwaters / hydrology / water quality / land use / connectivity / resilience
[1] |
Adams R K, Spotila J A (2005). The form and function of headwater streams based on field and modeling investigations in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. Earth Surf Process Landf, 30(12): 1521–1546
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[2] |
Adams S B, Frissell C A, Rieman B E (2001). Geography of invasion in mountain streams: consequences of headwater lake fish introductions. Ecosystems (N Y), 4(4): 296–307
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[3] |
Alexander R B , Boyer E W , Smith R A , Schwarz G E , Moore R B (2007). The role of headwater streams in downstream water quality. J Am Water Resour Assoc, 43(1): 41–59
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[4] |
Allan J D (1995). Stream Ecology. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers
|
[5] |
Arthington A H , Bernardo J M , Ilheu M (2014). Temporary rivers: linking ecohydrology, ecological quality and reconciliation ecology. River Res Appl, 30(10): 1209–1215
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[6] |
Battin T J, Kaplan L A, Findlay S, Hopkinson C S , Marti E , Packman A I , Newbold J D , Sabater F (2008). Biophysical controls on organic carbon fluxes in fluvial networks. Nat Geosci, 1(2): 95–100
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[7] |
Baxter C V, Fausch K D, Saunders W C (2005). Tangled webs: reciprocal flows of invertebrate prey link streams and riparian zones. Freshw Biol, 50(2): 201–220
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[8] |
Beasley C A, Hightower J E (2000). Effects of a low-head dam on the distribution and characteristics of spawning habitat used by striped bass and American shad. Trans Am Fish Soc, 129(6): 1316–1330
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[9] |
Benda L, Hassan M A, Church M, May C L (2005). Geomorphology of steepland headwaters: the transition from hillslopes to channels. J Am Water Resour Assoc, 41(4): 835–851
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[10] |
Bernhardt E S , Palmer M A (2011). The environmental costs of mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems of the Central Appalachians. Year Ecol Conserv Biol, 1223: 39–57
|
[11] |
Campbell I C, Doeg T J (1989). Impact of timber harvesting and production on streams: a review. Mar Freshw Res, 40(5): 519–539 doi:10.1071/MF9890519
|
[12] |
Dietrich W E, Dunne T (1993). The channel head. In: Beven K, Kirkby M J, eds. Channel Network Hydrology. Chichester, UK: Wiley and Sons, 175–219
|
[13] |
Dietrich W E, Wilson C J, Montgomery D R, McKean J (1993). Analysis of erosion thresholds, channel networks, and landscape morphology using a digital terrain model. J Geol, 101(2): 259–278
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[14] |
Dietrich W E, Wilson C J, Montgomery D R, McKean J, Bauer R (1992). Erosion thresholds and land surface morphology. Geology, 20(8): 675–679
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[15] |
Dodds W K, Oakes R M (2008). Headwater influences on downstream water quality. Environ Manage, 41(3): 367–377
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[16] |
Downing J A, Cole J J, Duarte C M, Middelburg J J, Melack J M, Prairie Y T, Kortelainen P, Striegl R G , McDowell W H , Tranvik L J (2012). Global abundance and size distribution of streams and rivers. Inland Waters, 2(4): 229–236
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[17] |
Elmore A J, Kaushal S S (2008). Disappearing headwaters: patterns of stream burial due to urbanization. Front Ecol Environ, 6(6): 308–312
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[18] |
Falke J A, Fausch K D, Magelky R, Aldred A , Durnford D S , Riley L K , Oad R (2011). The role of groundwater pumping and drought in shaping ecological futures for stream fishes in a dryland river basin of the western Great Plains, USA. Ecohydrology, 4(5): 682–697
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[19] |
Ferguson R (2007). Flow resistance equations for gravel- and boulder-bed streams. Water Resour Res, 43(5): n/a
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[20] |
Freeman M C, Pringle C M, Jackson C R (2007). Hydrologic connectivity and the contribution of stream headwaters to ecological integrity at regional scales. J Am Water Resour Assoc, 43(1): 5–14
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[21] |
FSSSWG (Forest Service Stream-Simulation Working Group) (2008). Stream Simulation: An Ecological Approach to Providing Passage for Aquatic Organisms at Road-Stream Crossings. USDA Forest Service National Technology and Development Program, 0877: 1801 (-SDTDC, San Dimas, CA.)
|
[22] |
Gomez B, Church M (1989). An assessment of bed load sediment transport formulae for gravel bed rivers. Water Resour Res, 25(6): 1161–1186
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[23] |
Gomi T, Sidle R C, Richardson J S (2002). Understanding processes and downstream linkages of headwater systems. Bioscience, 52(10): 905–916
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[24] |
Gooseff M N, Hall R O Jr, Tank J L (2007). Relating transient storage to channel complexity in streams of varying land use in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Water Resour Res, 43(1):
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[25] |
Griffith (1998). Lateral dispersal of the adult aquatic insects (Plecoptera, Trichoptera) following emergence from headwater streams in forested Appalachian catchments. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 91 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aesa/91.2.195.
|
[26] |
Grimm N B, Sheibley R W, Crenshaw C L, Dahm C N, Roach W J, Zeglin L H (2005). N retention and transformation in urban streams. J N Am Benthol Soc, 24(3): 626–642
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[27] |
Heine R A, Lant C L, Sengupta R R (2004). Development and comparison of approaches for automated mapping of stream channel networks. Ann Assoc Am Geogr, 94(3): 477–490
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[28] |
Henkle J E, Wohl E, Beckman N (2011). Locations of channel heads in the semiarid Colorado Front Range, USA. Geomorphology, 129(3‒4): 309–319
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[29] |
Howarth R W (2008). Coastal nitrogen pollution: a review of sources and trends globally and regionally. Harmful Algae, 8(1): 14–20
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[30] |
Ijjasz-Vasquez E J , Bras R L (1995). Scaling regimes of local slope versus contributing area in digital elevation models. Geomorphology, 12(4): 299–311
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[31] |
Istanbulluoglu E, Tarboton D G, Pack R T, Luce C (2002). A probabilistic approach for channel initiation. Water Resour Res, 38(12): 61-1–61-14
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[32] |
Jaeger K L, Montgomery D R, Bolton S M (2007). Channel and perennial flow initiation in headwater streams: management implications of variability in source-area size. Environ Manage, 40(5): 775–786
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[33] |
Jaeger K L, Olden J D (2012). Electrical resistance sensor arrays as a means to quantify longitudinal connectivity of rivers. River Res Appl, 28(10): 1843–1852
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[34] |
Jaeger K L, Olden J D, Pelland N A (2014). Climate change poised to threaten hydrologic connectivity and endemic fishes in dryland streams. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 111(38): 13894–13899
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[35] |
Jefferson A J , McGee R W (2013). Channel network extent in the context of historical land use, flow generation processes, and landscape evolution in the North Carolina Piedmont. Earth Surf Process Landf, 38(6): 601–613
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[36] |
Jones A (1971). Soil piping and stream channel initiation. Water Resour Res, 7(3): 602–610
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[37] |
Julian J P, Elmore A J, Guinn S M (2012). Channel head locations in forested watersheds across the mid-Atlantic United States: a physiographic analysis. Geomorphology, 177 ‒ 178: 194–203
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[38] |
Leibowitz S G , Wigington P J Jr, Rains M C , Downing D M (2008). Non-navigable streams and adjacent wetlands: addressing science needs following the Supreme Court’s Rapanos decision. Front Ecol Environ, 6(7): 364–371
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[39] |
MacDonald L H , Coe D (2007). Influence of headwater streams on downstream reaches in forested areas. For Sci, 53: 148–168
|
[40] |
McClain M E, Naiman R J (2008). Andean influences on the biogeochemistry and ecology of the Amazon River. Bioscience, 58(4): 325–338
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[41] |
McGlynn B L, McDonnell J J, Seibert J, Kendall C (2004). Scale effects on headwater catchment runoff timing, flow sources, and groundwater-streamflow relations. Water Resour Res, 40(7): n/a
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[42] |
Mersel M K, Lichvar R W (2014). A guide to ordinary high water mark (OHWM) delineation for non-perennial streams in the western mountains, valleys, and coast regions of the United States. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, ERDC/CRREL TR-14-13, Hannover, NH
|
[43] |
Meyer J L, Kaplan L A, Newbold D, Woltemade C J , Zedler J B , Beilfuss R , Carpenter Q , Semlitsch R , Watzin M C , Zedler P H (2007b). Where rivers are born: the scientific imperative for defending small streams and wetlands. Sierra Club, San Francisco, CA
|
[44] |
Meyer J L, Strayer D L, Wallace J B, Eggert S L, Helfman G S, Leonard N E (2007a). The contribution of headwater streams to biodiversity in river networks. J Am Water Resour Assoc, 43(1): 86–103
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[45] |
Meyer J L, Wallace J B (2001). Lost linkages and lotic ecology: rediscovering small streams. In: Press M C, Huntly N J, Levin S, eds., Ecology: Achievement and Challenge. Orlando, FL: Blackwell Science, 295–317
|
[46] |
Montgomery D R , Beamer E M , Pess G R , Quinn T P (1999). Channel type and salmonid spawning distribution and abundance. Can J Fish Aquat Sci, 56(3): 377–387
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[47] |
Montgomery D R , Dietrich W E (1988). Where do channels begin? Nature, 336(6196): 232–234
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[48] |
Montgomery D R , Dietrich W E (1989). Source areas, drainage density, and channel initiation. Water Resour Res, 25(8): 1907–1918
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[49] |
Montgomery D R , Dietrich W E (1992). Channel initiation and the problem of landscape scale. Science, 255(5046): 826–830
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[50] |
Montgomery D R , Foufoula-Georgiou E (1993). Channel network source representation using digital elevation models. Water Resour Res, 29(12): 3925–3934
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[51] |
Nadeau T L, Rains M C (2007). Hydrological connectivity between headwater streams and downstream waters: how science can inform policy. J Am Water Resour Assoc, 43(1): 118–133
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[52] |
Nakano S, Murakami M (2001). Reciprocal subsidies: dynamic interdependence between terrestrial and aquatic food webs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 98(1): 166–170
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[53] |
Nihlgard B J, Swank W T, Mitchell M J (1994). Biological processes and catchment studies. In: Moldan B, Cerny J, eds., Biogeochemistry of Small Catchments: A Tool for Environmental Research. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 133–161
|
[54] |
Osterkamp W R (2008). Annotated definitions of selected geomorphic terms and related terms of hydrology, sedimentology, soil science and ecology. U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 2008-1217, Reston, VA
|
[55] |
Palmer M A, Bernhardt E S, Schlesinger W H, Eshleman K N, Foufoula-Georgiou E, Hendryx M S , Lemly A D , Likens G E , Loucks O L , Power M E , White P S , Wilcock P R (2010). Mountaintop mining consequences. Science, 327(5962): 148–149
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[56] |
Paul M J, Meyer J L (2001). Streams in the urban landscape. Annu Rev Ecol Syst, 32(1): 333–365
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[57] |
Petersen R C, Madsen B L, Wilzbach M W, Magadza C H, Paarlberg A, Kullberg A , Cummins K W (1987). Stream management: emerging global similarities. Ambio, 16: 166–179
|
[58] |
Peterson B J, Wollheim W M, Mulholland P J, Webster J R, Meyer J L, Tank J L, Marti E, Bowden W B , Valett H M , Hershey A E , McDowell W H , Dodds W K , Hamilton S K , Gregory S , Morrall D D (2001). Control of nitrogen export from watersheds by headwater streams. Science, 292(5514): 86–90
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[59] |
Polvi L E, Wohl E (2013). Biotic drivers of stream planform: implications for understanding the past and restoring the future. Bioscience, 63(6): 439–452
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[60] |
Pond G J, Fritz K M, Johnson B R (2016). Macroinvertebrate and organic matter export from headwater tributaries of a Central Appalachian stream. Hydrobiologia, 779(1): 75–91
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[61] |
Prosser I P, Abernethy B (1996). Predicting the topographic limits to a gully network using a digital terrain model and process thresholds. Water Resour Res, 32(7): 2289–2298
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[62] |
Prosser I P, Dietrich W E (1995). Field experiments on erosion by overland flow and their implication for a digital terrain model of channel initiation. Water Resour Res, 31(11): 2867–2876
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[63] |
Reynolds L V, Shafroth P B, Poff N L (2015). Modeled intermittency risk for small streams in the Upper Colorado River Basin under climate change. J Hydrol (Amst), 523: 768–780
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[64] |
Ricciardi A, Rasmussen J B (1999). Extinction rates of North American freshwater fauna. Conserv Biol, 13(5): 1220–1222
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[65] |
Richardson J S , Bilby R E , Bondar C A (2005). Organic matter dynamics in small streams of the Pacific Northwest. J Am Water Resour Assoc, 41(4): 921–934
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[66] |
Richardson J S , Danehy R J (2007). A synthesis of the ecology of headwater streams and their riparian zones in temperate forests. For Sci, 53: 131–147
|
[67] |
Sawyer A H, Bayani Cardenas M, Buttles J (2012). Hyporheic temperature dynamics and heat exchange near channel-spanning logs. Water Resour Res, 48(1): W01529
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[68] |
Schlosser I J (1995). Critical landscape attributes that influence fish population dynamics in headwater streams. Hydrobiologia, 303(1‒3): 71–81
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[69] |
Schumm S A (1977). The Fluvial System.New York: Wiley and Sons
|
[70] |
Smock L A, Gladden J E, Riekenberg J L, Smith L C, Black C R (1992). Lotic macroinvertebrate production in three dimensions: channel surface, hyporheic, and floodplain environments. Ecology, 73(3): 876–886
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[71] |
Speaker R, Moore K, Gregory S (1984). Analysis of the process of retention of organic matter in stream ecosystems. Verh Internat Verein Limnol, 22: 1835–1841
|
[72] |
Stanford J A, Ward J V (1988). The hyporheic habitat of river ecosystems. Nature, 335(6185): 64–66
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[73] |
Strahler A N (1952). Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 63(11): 1117–1142
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[74] |
Sweeney B W, Bott T L, Jackson J K, Kaplan L A, Newbold J D, Standley L J, Hession C W, Horwitz R J (2004). Riparian deforestation, stream narrowing, and loss of stream ecosystem services. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 101(39): 14132–14137
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[75] |
Tarboton D G, Bras R L, Rodriguez-Iturbe I (1991). On the extraction of channel networks from digital elevation data. Hydrol Processes, 5(1): 81–100
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[76] |
Tarolli P, Dalla Fontana G (2009). Hillslope-to-valley transition morphology: new opportunities from high resolution DTMs. Geomorphology, 113(1‒2): 47–56
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[77] |
Tockner K, Malard F, Ward J V (2000). An extension of the flood pulse concept. Hydrol Processes, 14(16‒17): 2861–2883
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[78] |
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2012). 2012 Nationwide Permits, Conditions, District Engineer’s Decision, Further Information, and Definitions. http://www.usace.army.mil/Portals/2/docs/civilworks/nwp/2012/NWP2012_corrections_21-sep-2012.pdf
|
[79] |
Ward J V, Stanford J A (1995). Ecological connectivity in alluvial river ecosystems and its disruption by flow regulation. Regul Rivers Res Manage, 11(1): 105–119
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[80] |
Webster J R, Benfield E F, Ehrman T P, Schaeffer M A, Tank J L, Hutchens J J, D’Angelo D J (1999). What happens to allochthonous materials that fall into streams: a synthesis of new and published information from Coweeta. Freshw Biol, 41(4): 687–705
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[81] |
Wipfli M S, Gregovich D P (2002). Export of invertebrates and detritus from fishless headwater streams in southeastern Alaska: implications for downstream salmonid production. Freshw Biol, 47(5): 957–969
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[82] |
Wipfli M S, Richardson J S, Naiman R J (2007). Ecological linkages between headwaters and downstream ecosystems: transport of organic matter, invertebrates, and wood down headwater channels. J Am Water Resour Assoc, 43(1): 72–85
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[83] |
Wohl E (2010). Mountain Rivers Revisited. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union Press
|
[84] |
Wohl E (2013). Migration of channel heads following wildfire in the Colorado Front Range, USA. Earth Surf Process Landf, 38(9): 1049–1053
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[85] |
Wohl E (2014). Rivers in the Landscape: Science and Management. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell
|
[86] |
Wohl E E, Pearthree P A (1991). Debris flows as geomorphic agents in the Huachuca Mountains of southeastern Arizona. Geomorphology, 4(3‒4): 273–292
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[87] |
Yetemen O, Istanbulluoglu E, Vivoni E R (2010). The implications of geology, soils, and vegetation on landscape morphology: inferences from semi-arid basins with complex vegetation patterns in central New Mexico, USA. Geomorphology, 116(3‒4): 246–263
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
/
〈 | 〉 |