Assessment of major ions and heavy metals in groundwater: a case study from Guangzhou and Zhuhai of the Pearl River Delta, China

Abstract

Anthropogenic activities in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) have caused a deterioration of groundwater quality over the past twenty years as a result of rapid urbanization and industrial development. In this study, the hydrochemical characteristics, quality, and sources of heavy metals in the groundwater of the PRD were investigated. Twenty-five groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), δ¹⁸O, δ²H, major ions, and heavy metals. The groundwater was slightly acidic and presented TDS values that ranged from 35.5 to 8,779.3 mg·L^‒1. The concentrations of the major ions followed the order Cl^->{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{O}}_3^{-}>Na⁺>\mathrm{S}{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{\mathrm{2}-}>\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{3}}^{-}>\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{H}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}>Ca²⁺>K⁺>Mg²⁺>Fe^2+/3+>Al³⁺. Ca-Mg-HCO₃ and Na-K-HCO₃ were the predominant types of facies, and the chemical composition of the groundwater was primarily controlled by chemical weathering of the basement rocks, by mixing of freshwater and seawater and by anthropogenic activities. The heavy metal pollution index (HPI) indicated that 64% of the samples were in the low category, 16% were in the medium category and 20% were in the high category, providing further evidence that this groundwater is unsuitable for drinking. Lead, arsenic, and manganese were mainly sourced from landfill leachate; cadmium from landfill leachate and agricultural wastes; mercury from the discharge of leachate associated with mining activities and agricultural wastes; and chromium primarily from industrial wastes. According to the irrigation water quality indicators, the groundwater in the PRD can be used for irrigation in most farmland without strong negative impacts. However, approximately 9 million people in the Guangdong Province are at risk due to the consumption of untreated water. Therefore, we suggest that treating the groundwater to achieve safer levels is necessary.

Keywords

Pearl River Delta / groundwater quality / hydrochemical type / sodium salts accumulation / heavy metal pollution

References

[1] Aitchison J C, Ali J R, Davis A M (2007). When and where did India and Asia collide? J Geophys Res, B, Solid Earth, 112(5): 1–2

[2] Ayuba R, Omonona O V, Onwuka O S (2013). Assessment of groundwater quality of Lokoja Basement Area, North-Central Nigeria. J Geol Soc India, 82(4): 413–420

[3] Beal S A, Kelly M A, Stroup J S, Jackson B P, Lowell T V, Tapia P M. (2014). Natural and anthropogenic variations in atmospheric mercury deposition during the Holocene near Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru. Global Biogeochem Cycles, 28(4): 437–450

[4] Bhardwaj V, Singh D S (2011). Surface and groundwater quality characterization of Deoria District, Ganga Plain, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 63(2): 383–395

[5] Buss S R, Herbert A W, Morgan P, Thornton S F, Smith J W N (2004). A review of ammonium attenuation in soil and groundwater. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 37(4): 347– 359

[6] Cai L M, Huang L C, Zhou Y Z, Ma J, Du H Y, Dou L, Zhang C B (2009). The spatial structure and distribution of Cr contents in agricultural soils in a typical area of the Pearl River Delta, China. Journal of Agro-Environment Science, 28(1): 60–65 (in Chinese)

[7] Cheung K C, Poon B H T, Lan C Y, Wong M H (2003). Assessment of metal and nutrient concentrations in river water and sediment collected from the cities in the Pearl River Delta, South China. Chemosphere, 52(9): 1431–1440

[8] Erturk A, Gurel M, Ekdal A, Tavsan C, Ugurluoglu A, Seker D Z, Tanik A, Ozturk I (2010). Water quality assessment and meta model development in Melen watershed–Turkey. J Environ Manage, 91(7): 1526–1545

[9] Fan X Y, Cui B S, Zhang Z M (2012). Spatial variations of river water quality in Pearl River Delta, China. Front Earth Sci, 6(3): 291–296

[10] GHT (1981). Regional Hydrogeological Survey Report. Guangzhou: Guangdong Hydrogeological Team (in Chinese)

[11] Haloi N, Sarma H P (2012). Heavy metal contaminations in the groundwater of Brahmaputra flood plain: an assessment of water quality in Barpeta District, Assam (India). Environ Monit Assess, 184(10): 6229–6237

[12] Huang G X, Sun J C, Zhang Y, Jing J H, Zhang Y X, Liu J T (2011). Distribution of arsenic in sewage irrigation area of Pearl River Delta, China. Journal of Earth Science, 22(3): 396–410

[13] Jiao J J, Wang Y, Cherry J A, Wang X S, Zhi B F, Du H Y, Wen D G (2010). Abnormally high ammonium of natural origin in a coastal aquifer–aquitard system in the Pearl River Delta, China. Environ Sci Technol, 44(19): 7470–7475

[14] Kelln C J, Wassenaar L I, Hendry M J (2001). Stable isotopes (δ¹⁸O, δ²H) of pore waters in clay-rich aquitards: a comparison and evaluation of measurement techniques. Ground Water Monit Remediat, 21(2): 108–116

[15] Lan H X, Hu R L, Yue Z Q, Lee C F, Wang S J (2003). Engineering and geological characteristics of granite weathering profiles in South China. J Asian Earth Sci, 21(4): 353–364

[16] Lan X (1991). Sedimentary characteristics and strata division of core 22 of the Zhujiang River Delta. Oceanol Limnol Sin, 22(2): 148–154

[17] Li F D, Pan G Y, Tang C Y, Zhang Q Y, Yu J J (2008). Recharge source and hydrogeochemical evolution of shallow groundwater in a complex alluvial fan system, southwest of North China Plain. Environmental Geology, 55(5): 1109–1122

[18] Liang G L, Sun J C, Huang G X, Jing J H, Liu J T, Chen X, Zhang Y X, Du H Y (2009). Origin and distribution characteristics of manganese in groundwater of the Pearl River Delta. Geology in China, 36(4): 899–906 (in Chinese)

[19] Lin J F, Lai Q H, Fang J W, Ma S M (2007). Appraise of environmental geochemistry in soil Hg polluted areas in the Pearl River Delta. Ecol Environ, 16(1): 41–46 (in Chinese)

[20] Liu B L, Hu K, Jiang Z L, Yang J, Luo X M, Liu A H (2011). Distribution and enrichment of heavy metals in a sediment core from the Pearl River Estuary. Environmental Earth Sciences, 62(2): 265–275

[21] Lu Y T, Tang C Y, Chen J Y, Sakura Y (2008). Impact of septic tank systems on local groundwater quality and water supply in the Pearl River Delta, China: case study. Hydrol Processes, 22(3): 443–450

[22] Luo X L, Guo Q R, Xie Z Y, Yang J J, Chai Z W, Liu X, Wu S F (2014). Study on heavy metal pollution in typical rural soils in Pearl River Delta area. Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 23(3): 485–489 (in Chinese)

[23] Mohan S V, Nithila P, Reddy S J (1996). Estimation of heavy metal in drinking water and development of heavy metal pollution index. J Environ Sci Health A, 31(2): 283–289

[24] Ni H G, Lu F H, Luo X L, Tian H Y, Zeng E Y (2008). Riverine inputs of total organic carbon and suspended particulate matter from the Pearl River Delta to the coastal ocean off South China. Mar Pollut Bull, 56(6): 1150–1157

[25] Ouyang T P, Zhu Z Y, Kuang Y Q (2006). Assessing impact of urbanization on river water quality in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone, China. Environ Monit Assess, 120(1–3): 313–325

[26] Piper A M (1944). A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water analyses. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 25(6): 914–928

[27] Purushotham D, Rashid M, Lone M A, Rao A N, Ahmed S, Nagaiah E, Dar F A (2013). Environmental impact assessment of air and heavy metal concentration in groundwater of Maheshwaram Watershed, Ranga Reddy District, Andhra Pradesh. J Geol Soc India, 81(3): 385–396

[28] Sajil Kumar P J, Davis Delson P, Thomas Babu P(2012). Appraisal of heavy metals in groundwater in Chennai City using a HPI model. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 89(4): 793–798

[29] Schreiber M E, Simo J A, Freiberg P G (2000). Stratigraphic and geochemical controls on naturally occurring arsenic in groundwater, eastern Wisconsin, USA. Hydrogeol J, 8(2): 161–176

[30] Sheykhi V, Moore F (2012). Geochemical characterization of Kor River water quality, Fars Province, Southwest Iran. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, 4(1): 25–38

[31] Shi J B, Ip C C M, Zhang G, Jiang G B, Li X D (2010). Mercury profiles in sediments of the Pearl River Estuary and the surrounding coastal area of South China. Environ Pollut, 158(5): 1974–1979

[32] Stallard R F, Edmond J M (1983). Geochemistry of the Amazon river: 2. The influence of the geology and weathering environment on dissolved load. J Geophys Res, 88(C14): 9671–9688

[33] Sue F H (2001). Depth Distributions of δ¹⁸O and Changes in Mixed Layer Thickness in the South China Sea. Dissertation for Master degree. National Sun Yat-sen University (in Chinese)

[34] USSL (1954). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. Washington DC: USDA Handbook No. 60

[35] Vasanthavigar M, Srinivasamoorthy K, Vijayaragavan K, Rajiv Ganthi R, Chidambaram S, Anandhan P, Manivannan R, Vasudevan S (2010). Application of water quality index for groundwater quality assessment: Thirumanimuttar sub-basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Monit Assess, 171(1–4): 595–609

[36] Wang D L, Lin W F, Yang X Q, Zhai W D, Dai M H, Chen C T A (2012). Occurrences of dissolved trace metals (Cu, Cd, and Mn) in the Pearl River Estuary (China), a large river-groundwater-estuary system. Cont Shelf Res, 50–51: 54–63

[37] Wang X S, Jiao J J, Wang Y, Cherry J A, Kuang X X, Liu K, Lee C, Gong Z J (2013a). Accumulation and transport of ammonium in aquitards in the Pearl River Delta (China) in the last 10,000 years: conceptual and numerical models. Hydrogeol J, 21(5): 961–976

[38] Wang Y, Jiao J J (2012). Origin of groundwater salinity and hydrogeochemical processes in the confined Quaternary aquifer of the Pearl River Delta, China. J Hydrol (Amst), 438–439: 112–124

[39] Wang Y, Jiao J J, Cherry J A, Lee C M (2013b). Contribution of the aquitard to the regional groundwater hydrochemistry of the underlying confined aquifer in the Pearl River Delta, China. Sci Total Environ, 461–462: 663–671

[40] WHO (1993). Guidelines for drinking water quality (2nd ed). Recommendations, Geneva: World Health Organization, 188

[41] WHO (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality world health organization (4th ed). Geneva: World Health Organization, 340

[42] Wilcox L V (1955). Classification and use of irrigation waters (1st ed). Washington DC: United States Department of Agriculture

[43] Wong C S C, Li X D, Zhang G, Qi S H, Min Y S (2002). Heavy metals in agricultural soils of the Pearl River Delta, South China. Environ Pollut, 119(1): 33–44

[44] Wong C S C, Li X D, Zhang G, Qi S H, Peng X Z (2003). Atmospheric deposition of heavy metals in the Pearl River Delta, China. Atmos Environ, 37(6): 767–776

[45] Wong C S C, Wu S C, Duzgoren-Aydin N S, Aydin A, Wong M H (2007). Trace metal contamination of sediments in an e-waste processing village in China. Environ Pollut, 145(2): 434–442

[46] Yuan J F, Mao X M, Wang Y X (2013). Hydrogeochemical characteristics of low to medium temperature groundwater in the Pearl River Delta region, China. Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, 7: 928–931

[47] Zhang Y, Li F D, Li J, Liu Q, Zhao G S (2013). Quantitative estimation of groundwater recharge ratio along the riparian of the Yellow River. Water Sci Technol, 68(11): 2427–2432

[48] Zhang Y, Li F D, Zhao G S, Li J, Zhu Q Y (2014). An attempt to evaluate the recharge source and extent using hydrogeochemistry and stable isotopes in North Henan Plain, China. Environ Monit Assess, 186(8): 5185–5197

[49] Zhao X F, Chen J Y, Tang C Y, Zeng S Q, Lu Y T (2007). Hydrochemical characteristics and evolution of groundwater in a small catchment of Pearl River Delta. Ecol Environ, 16(6): 1620–1626 (in Chinese)

[50] Zong Y, Yim W W S, Yu F, Huang G (2009). Late Quaternary environmental changes in the Pearl River Mouth region, China. Quat Int, 206(1–2): 35–45

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg