Harnessing Piezoelectric Biomaterials for Pathogenic Eradication and Tissue Regeneration

Abstract

The increasing incidence of infections and impaired tissue healing underscores the urgent need for effective therapeutic strategies for antibacterial treatment and regenerative medicine. Piezoelectric catalytic therapy represents an innovative approach that converts mechanical energy into electrochemical energy, providing a versatile platform for biomedical applications. However, conventional piezoelectric materials face significant limitations, including poor biocompatibility and insufficient catalytic efficiency, restricting their clinical translation. Piezoelectric biomaterials, characterized by excellent biocompatibility and enhanced piezoelectric performance, have recently emerged as promising candidates to overcome these challenges. This review systematically summarizes the latest advancements in piezoelectric biomaterials designed for pathogenic eradication and tissue regeneration. We provide a comprehensive overview of piezoelectric biomaterial classifications, fundamental mechanisms of piezoelectric catalysis, and methods to enhance material properties. Furthermore, we explore current applications of piezoelectric biomaterials in antibacterial therapies and regenerative medicine. Finally, critical challenges and potential future directions in material optimization and clinical application are identified, aiming to stimulate further innovation and research in this transformative field.

Keywords

antibacterial / piezoelectric biomaterials / piezoelectric effect / tissue regeneration

References

[1] C. J. L. Murray, K. S. Ikuta, and F. Sharara, “Global Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance in 2019: A Systematic Analysis,” The Lancet 399, no. 10325 (2022): 629–655, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0.

[2] D. Sengupta, S. Naskar, and D. Mandal, “Reactive Oxygen Species for Therapeutic Application: Role of Piezoelectric Materials,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 25, no. 38 (2023): 25925–25941, https://doi.org/10.1039/D3CP01711G.

[3] K. van der Maaden, E. M. Varypataki, S. Romeijn, F. Ossendorp, W. Jiskoot, and J. Bouwstra, “Ovalbumin-Coated pH-Sensitive Microneedle Arrays Effectively Induce Ovalbumin-Specific Antibody and T-Cell Responses in Mice,” European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 88, no. 2 (2014): 310–315, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2014.05.003.

[4] S. Chen, P. Zhu, and L. Mao, “Piezocatalytic Medicine: An Emerging Frontier Using Piezoelectric Materials for Biomedical Applications,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 25 (2023): e2208256, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202208256.

[5] J. Zhang, C. Liu, and J. Li, “Advanced Piezoelectric Materials, Devices, and Systems for Orthopedic Medicine,” Advanced Science 12, no. 3 (2024): e2410400, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202410400.

[6] L. Zhou, T. Yuan, and F. Jin, “Advances in Applications of Piezoelectronic Electrons in Cell Regulation and Tissue Regeneration,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 10, no. 43 (2022): 8797–8823, https://doi.org/10.1039/D2TB01582J.

[7] C. C. Jin, D. M. Liu, and L. X. Zhang, “An Emerging Family of Piezocatalysts: 2D Piezoelectric Materials,” Small 19, no. 44 (2023): e2303586, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202303586.

[8] H.-Y. Zhang, Y.-Y. Tang, Z.-X. Gu, et al., “Biodegradable Ferroelectric Molecular Crystal With Large Piezoelectric Response,” Science 383 (2024): 1492–1498, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adj1946.

[9] S. Shang, F. Zheng, and W. Tan, “Piezoelectric Biomaterial With Advanced Design for Tissue Infection Repair,” Advanced Science 12, no. 10 (2025): e2413105, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202413105.

[10] Q. Xu, X. Gao, and S. Zhao, “Construction of Bio-Piezoelectric Platforms: From Structures and Synthesis to Applications,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 27 (2021): e2008452, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202008452.

[11] D. Carranza-Celis, A. Cardona-Rodríguez, and J. Narváez, et al., “Control of Multiferroic Properties in BiFeO₃ Nanoparticles,” Scientific Reports 9, no. 1 (2019): 3182, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-39517-3.

[12] A. V. Kachynski, A. N. Kuzmin, and M. Nyk, “Zinc Oxide Nanocrystals for Nonresonant Nonlinear Optical Microscopy in Biology and Medicine,” Nanomaterials and Interfaces 112, no. 29 (2008): 10721–10724, https://doi.org/10.1021/jp801684j.

[13] M. Songyuan, J. Long, and H. Xi, “Nanogenerators Begin to Light up: A Novel Poling-Free Piezoelectric System With Multicolor Photoluminescence as an Efficient Mechatronics Development Platform,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 5 (2018): 800587, https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.201800587.

[14] Y. Zang, F. Zhang, and C. A. Di, “Advances of Flexible Pressure Sensors Toward Artificial Intelligence and Health Care Applications,” Materials Horizons 2, no. 2 (2014), https://doi.org/10.1039/C4MH00147H.

[15] M. T. Chorsi, E. J. Curry, and H. T. Chorsi, “Piezoelectric Biomaterials for Sensors and Actuators,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 1 (2019): e1802084, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201802084.

[16] T. D. Usher, K. R. Cousins, and R. Zhang, “The Promise of Piezoelectric Polymers,” Polymer International 67, no. 7 (2018): 790–798, https://doi.org/10.1002/pi.5584.

[17] K. K. Sappati and S. Bhadra, “Piezoelectric Polymer and Paper Substrates: A Review,” Sensors 18, no. 11 (2018): 3605, https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113605.

[18] Y. J. Park, K.-S. Hwang, J.-E. Song, J. L. Ong, and H. R. Rawls, “Growth of Calcium Phosphate on Poling Treated Ferroelectric BaTiO₃ Ceramics,” Biomaterials 23, no. 18 (2002): 3859–3864, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00123-0.

[19] T. Kaura, R. Nath, and M. M. Perlman, “Simultaneous Stretching and Corona Poling of PVDF Films,” Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 24, no. 10 (1991): 1848–1852, https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/24/10/020.

[20] T. Lin, H. Wang, and H. Wang, “The Charge Effect of Cationic Surfactants on the Elimination of Fibre Beads in the Electrospinning of Polystyrene,” Nanotechnology 15, no. 9 (2004): 1375–1381, https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/15/9/044.

[21] L. Gazvoda, N. M. Perišić, and M. Spreitzer, “Antimicrobial Activity of Piezoelectric Polymer: Piezoelectricity as the Reason for Damaging Bacterial Membrane,” Biomaterials Science 10, no. 17 (2022): 4933–4948, https://doi.org/10.1039/D2BM00644H.

[22] H. J. Lee, S. Zhang, and Y. Bar-Cohen, “High Temperature, High Power Piezoelectric Composite Transducers,” Sensors 14, no. 8 (2014): 14526–14552, https://doi.org/10.3390/s140814526.

[23] D. Kim, S. A. Han, J. H. Kim, J.-H. Lee, S.-W. Kim, and S.-W. Lee, “Biomolecular Piezoelectric Materials: From Amino Acids to Living Tissues,” Advanced Materials 32, no. 14 (2020): e1906989, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201906989.

[24] J. H. Yuan T. Lei, Y. Qin, J.-H. He, and R. Yang, “Design and Application of Piezoelectric Biomaterials,” Journal of Physics, D: Applied Physics 52, no. 19 (2019): 194002, https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/ab0532.

[25] D. Khare, B. Basu, and A. K. Dubey, “Electrical Stimulation and Piezoelectric Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications,” Biomaterials 258 (2020): 120280, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120280.

[26] E. S. Hosseini, L. Manjakkal, and D. Shakthivel, “Glycine–Chitosan-Based Flexible Biodegradable Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 12, no. 8 (2020): 9008–9016, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b21052.

[27] A. Nain, S. Chakraborty, and S. R. Barman, “Progress in the Development of Piezoelectric Biomaterials for Tissue Remodeling,” Biomaterials 307 (2024): 122528, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2024.122528.

[28] A. L. Fidler, S. P. Boudko, and A. Rokas, “The Triple Helix of Collagens—An Ancient Protein Structure That Enabled Animal Multicellularity and Tissue Evolution,” Journal of Cell Science 131, no. 7 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.203950.

[29] Z. Zhou, D. Qian, and M. Minary-Jolandan, “Molecular Mechanism of Polarization and Piezoelectric Effect in Super-Twisted Collagen,” ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering 2, no. 6 (2016): 929–936, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.6b00021.

[30] Y. W. Kim, H. B. Lee, and S. M. Yeon, “Enhanced Piezoelectricity in a Robust and Harmonious Multilayer Assembly of Electrospun Nanofiber Mats and Microbead-Based Electrodes,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10, no. 6 (2018): 5723–5730, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b18259.

[31] M. B. Ghasemian, T. Daeneke, and Z. Shahrbabaki, “Peculiar Piezoelectricity of Atomically Thin Planar Structures,” Nanoscale 12, no. 5 (2020): 2875–2901, https://doi.org/10.1039/C9NR08063E.

[32] K. Kapat, Q. T. H. Shubhra, and M. Zhou, “Piezoelectric Nano-Biomaterials for Biomedicine and Tissue Regeneration,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 44 (2020): 1909045, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201909045.

[33] Y. Wang, X. Wen, and Y. Jia, “Piezo-Catalysis for Nondestructive Tooth Whitening,” Nature Communications 11, no. 1 (2020): 1328, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15015-3.

[34] A. Sood, M. Desseigne, and A. Dev, “A Comprehensive Review on Barium Titanate Nanoparticles as a Persuasive Piezoelectric Material for Biomedical Applications: Prospects and Challenges,” Small 19, no. 12 (2023): e2206401, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202206401.

[35] N. A. Kamel, “Bio-piezoelectricity: Fundamentals and Applications in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine,” Biophysical Reviews 14, no. 3 (2022): 717–733, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12551-022-00969-z.

[36] J. Ji, C. Yang, and Y. Shan, “Research Trends of Piezoelectric Nanomaterials in Biomedical Engineering,” Advanced NanoBiomed Research 3, no. 1 (2023): 2200088, https://doi.org/10.1002/anbr.202200088.

[37] J. Feng, X. Yaoliu, S. Shuanghonglan, S. Lan, and Y. Xiong, “Significant Improvement and Mechanism of Ultrasonic Inactivation to Escherichia coli With Piezoelectric Effect of Hydrothermally Synthesized t-BaTiO₃,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 6, no. 5 (2018): 6032–6041, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b04666.

[38] X. Q. Fang, J. X. Liu, and V. Gupta, “Fundamental Formulations and Recent Achievements in Piezoelectric Nano-structures: A Review,” Nanoscale 5, no. 5 (2013): 1716, https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr33531j.

[39] X. Chen, J. Shao, and N. An, “Self-Powered Flexible Pressure Sensors With Vertically Well-Aligned Piezoelectric Nanowire Arrays for Monitoring Vital Signs,” Journal of Materials Chemistry C 3, no. 45 (2015): 11806–11814, https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TC02173A.

[40] W. Xudong, “Piezoelectric Nanogenerators—Harvesting Ambient Mechanical Energy at the Nanometer Scale,” Nano Energy 1, no. 1 (2012): 13–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2011.09.001.

[41] F. Mokhtari, Z. Cheng, and R. Raad, “Piezofibers to Smart Textiles: A Review on Recent Advances and Future Outlook for Wearable Technology,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2020, no. 19 (2020): 8, https://doi.org/10.1039/D0TA00227E.

[42] H. Yuan, T. Lei, Y. Qin, et al., “Flexible Electronic Skins Based on Piezoelectric Nanogenerators and Piezotronics,” Nano Energy 59 (2019): 84–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.01.072.

[43] S. Kaps, S. Bhowmick, and J. Gröttrup, “Piezoresistive Response of Quasi-One-Dimensional ZnO Nanowires Using an in Situ Electromechanical Device,” ACS Omega 2, no. 6 (2017): 2985–2993, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.7b00041.

[44] I. Inoue, Y. Umemura, and I. Raifuku, “Biotemplated Synthesis of TiO₂-Coated Gold Nanowire for Perovskite Solar Cells,” ACS Omega 2, no. 9 (2017): 5478–5485, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.7b00940.

[45] T. Zheng, Z. Yue, and G. G. Wallace, “Nanoscale Piezoelectric Effect of Biodegradable PLA-Based Composite Fibers by Piezoresponse Force Microscopy,” Nanotechnology 31, no. 37 (2020): 375708, https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/ab96e3.

[46] T. Wu and H. Zhang, “Piezoelectricity in Two-Dimensional Materials,” Angewandte Chemie, International Edition 54, no. 15 (2015): 4432–4434, https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201411335.

[47] H. You, Y. Jia, and Z. Wu, “Room-Temperature Pyro-Catalytic Hydrogen Generation of 2D Few-Layer Black Phosphorene Under Cold-Hot Alternation,” Nature Communications 9, no. 1 (2018): 2889, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05343-w.

[48] G.-J. Lee, M.-K. Lee, J.-J. Park, D. Y. Hyeon, C. K. Jeong, and K.-I. Park, “Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting From Two-Dimensional Boron Nitride Nanoflakes,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 41 (2019): 37920–37926, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b12187.

[49] M. Zelisko, Y. Hanlumyuang, and S. Yang, “Anomalous Piezoelectricity in Two-Dimensional Graphene Nitride Nanosheets,” Nature Communications 5 (2014): 4284, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms5284.

[50] N. Karel-Alexander and Duerloo, “Intrinsic Piezoelectricity in Two-Dimensional Materials,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 3, no. 19 (2012): 2871–2876, https://doi.org/10.1021/jz3012436.

[51] Y. J. Li A, Y. He, et al., “Advancing Piezoelectric 2D Nanomaterials for Applications in Drug Delivery Systems and Therapeutic Approaches,” Nanoscale Horizons 9, no. 3 (2024): 365–383, https://doi.org/10.1039/D3NH00578J.

[52] J.-H. Lin, Y.-H. Tsao, M.-H. Wu, T.-M. Chou, Z.-H. Lin, and J. M. Wu, “Single- and Few-Layers MoS₂ Nanocomposite as Piezo-Catalyst in Dark and Self-Powered Active Sensor,” Nano Energy 31 (2017): 575–581, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.12.013.

[53] A. Simpkins, “Robotic Tactile Sensing: Technologies and System,” IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 20, no. 2 (2013): 107, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0579-1.

[54] J. A. Gallego-Juárez, “Basic Principles of Ultrasound,” in Ultrasound in Food Processing, ed. M. Villamiel, A. Montilla, J. V. García-Pérez, J. A. Cárcel, J. Benedito (Wiley, 2017): 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118964156.ch1.

[55] H. Pelicano, D. Carney, and P. Huang, “ROS Stress in Cancer Cells and Therapeutic Implications,” Drug Resistance Updates: Reviews and Commentaries in Antimicrobial and Anticancer Chemotherapy 7, no. 2 (2004): 97–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drup.2004.01.004.

[56] B. Jiang, J. Iocozzia, and L. Zhao, “Barium Titanate at the Nanoscale: Controlled Synthesis and Dielectric and Ferroelectric Properties,” Chemical Society Reviews 48, no. 4 (2019): 1194–1228, https://doi.org/10.1039/C8CS00583D.

[57] S. R. Anton and H. A. Sodono, “A Review of Power Harvesting Using Piezoelectric Materials,” Smart Materials and Structures 16, no. 3 (2007): R1, https://doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/16/3/R01.

[58] K. Kubota, Y. Pang, A. Miura, et al., “Redox Reactions of Small Organic Molecules Using Ball Milling and Piezoelectric Materials,” Science 366, no. 6472 (2019): 1500–1504, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay8224.

[59] D. Trachootham, J. Alexandre, and P. Huang, “Targeting Cancer Cells by ROS-Mediated Mechanisms: A Radical Therapeutic Approach?,” Nature Reviews Drug discovery 8, no. 7 (2009): 579–591, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd2803.

[60] X. Li, W. Xiu, D. Yang, and H. Dong, “Ultrasound-Responsive Microbubbles in Antibacterial Therapy,” Biomedical Engineering Communications 2, no. 2 (2023): 7, https://doi.org/10.53388/BMEC2023007.

[61] H. Dong, W. Xiu, and L. Wan, “Biofilm Microenvironment Response Nanoplatform Synergistically Degrades Biofilm Structure and Relieves Hypoxia for Efficient Sonodynamic Therapy,” Chemical Engineering Journal 453 (2023): 139839, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.139839.

[62] B. Dai, C. Gao, and J. Guo, “A Robust Pyro-Phototronic Route to Markedly Enhanced Photocatalytic Disinfection,” Nano Letters 24, no. 16 (2024): 4816–4825, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c05098.

[63] X. Cui, L. Xu, and Y. Shan, “Piezocatalytically-Induced Controllable Mineralization Scaffold With Bone-Like Microenvironment to Achieve Endogenous Bone Regeneration,” Science Bulletin 69, no. 12 (2024): 1895–1908, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2024.04.002.

[64] Y. Hu, K. Yang, and N. Li, “Gas-Generating Photocatalytic Agents for Bacterial Infection Treatment,” Research 8 (2025): 0672, https://doi.org/10.34133/research.0672.

[65] X. Lin, J. Song, and X. Chen, “Ultrasound-Activated Sensitizers and Applications,” Angewandte Chemie, International Edition 59, no. 34 (2020): 14212–14233, https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201906823.

[66] X. Zhang, Z. Yang, and J. Zhang, “Piezotronic Effect Enhanced Catalytic Sterilization: Mechanisms and Practical Applications,” Nano Energy 131 (2024): 110346, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110346.

[67] Y. Zhao, T. Huang, and X. Zhang, “Piezotronic and Piezo-Phototronic Effects on Sonodynamic Disease Therapy,” BMEMat 1, no. 1 (2023): e12006, https://doi.org/10.1002/bmm2.12006.

[68] K. S. Hong, H. Xu, H. Konishi, and X. Li, “Direct Water Splitting through Vibrating Piezoelectric Microfibers in Water,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 1, no. 6 (2010): 997–1002, https://doi.org/10.1021/jz100027t.

[69] J. Jang, K. Kim, and J. Yoon, “Piezoelectric Materials for Ultrasound-driven Dissociation of Alzheimer's β-amyloid Aggregate Structure,” Biomaterials 255 (2020): 120165, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120165.

[70] Y. Chen, X. Wan, Y. Yue, et al., “Low-Intensity Ultrasound-Activated Cavitation Effect Triggers Piezoelectric Catalysis Coordinating Respiratory Chain Interference Tactics Against Bacterial Infection,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 14 (2025): 2419426, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202419426.

[71] L. Karygianni, Z. Ren, and H. Koo, “Biofilm Matrixome: Extracellular Components in Structured Microbial Communities,” Trends in Microbiology 28, no. 8 (2020): 668–681, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2020.03.016.

[72] X. Zhao, L.-Y. Wang, and C.-Y. Tang, “Electro-Microenvironment Modulated Inhibition of Endogenous Biofilms by Piezo Implants for Ultrasound-Localized Intestinal Perforation Disinfection,” Biomaterials 295 (2023): 122055, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122055.

[73] B. Park and G. Y. Liu, “Targeting the Host–Pathogen Interface for Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Infection,” Seminars in Immunopathology 34, no. 2 (2012): 299–315, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-011-0297-1.

[74] K. Li, W. Xu, and Y. Chen, “Piezoelectric Nanostructured Surface for Ultrasound-Driven Immunoregulation to Rescue Titanium Implant Infection,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 28 (2023): 2214522, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202214522.

[75] E. O. Carvalho, M. M. Fernandes, and J. Padrao, “Tailoring Bacteria Response by Piezoelectric Stimulation,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 30 (2019): 27297–27305, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b05013.

[76] T. Zheng, Y. Yu, and Y. Pang, “Improving Bone Regeneration With Composites Consisting of Piezoelectric Poly(l-Lactide) and Piezoelectric Calcium/Manganese Co-Doped Barium Titanate Nanofibers,” Composites Part B: Engineering 234 (2022): 109734, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.109734.

[77] C. Geng, S. He, and S. Yu, “Achieving Clearance of Drug-Resistant Bacterial Infection and Rapid Cutaneous Wound Regeneration Using an ROS-Balancing-Engineered Heterojunction,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 16 (2024): 2310599, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202310599.

[78] X. Wang, S. T. Stefanello, and V. Shahin, “From Mechanoelectric Conversion to Tissue Regeneration: Translational Progress in Piezoelectric Materials,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): e2417564, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202417564.

[79] D. Fei, Y. Zhang, J. Wu, et al., “Ca_v1.2 Regulates Osteogenesis of Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells via Canonical Wnt Pathway in Age-Related Osteoporosis,” Aging Cell 18, no. 4 (2019): e12967, https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.12967.

[80] L. Roldan, C. Montoya, V. Solanki, et al., “A Novel Injectable Piezoelectric Hydrogel for Periodontal Disease Treatment,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 37 (2023): 43441–43454, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c08336.

[81] L. Mao, L. Bai, and X. Wang, “Enhanced Cell Osteogenesis and Osteoimmunology Regulated by Piezoelectric Biomaterials With Controllable Surface Potential and Charges,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 14, no. 39 (2022): 44111–44124, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c11131.

[82] H. Li, X. Pan, and T. Wang, “Piezoelectric Nanomaterial-Mediated Physical Signals Regulate Cell Differentiation for Regenerative Medicine,” Small Science 4, no. 3 (2024): 2300255, https://doi.org/10.1002/smsc.202300255.

[83] Z. Liu, X. Wan, and Z. L. Wang, “Electroactive Biomaterials and Systems for Cell Fate Determination and Tissue Regeneration: Design and Applications,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 32 (2021): 2007429, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202007429.

[84] J. Xu, W. Wang, and C. C. Clark, “Signal Transduction in Electrically Stimulated Articular Chondrocytes Involves Translocation of Extracellular Calcium Through Voltage-Gated Channels,” Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 17, no. 3 (2009): 397–405, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2008.07.001.

[85] W. J. Hadden, J. L. Young, and A. W. Holle, “Stem Cell Migration and Mechanotransduction on Linear Stiffness Gradient Hydrogels,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, no. 22 (2017): 5647–5652, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618239114.

[86] B. Coste, J. Mathur, M. Schmidt, et al., “Piezo1 and Piezo2 Are Essential Components of Distinct Mechanically Activated Cation Channels,” Science 330, no. 6000 (2010): 55–60, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1193270.

[87] X. Z. Yang, C. Lin, and X. D. Chen, “Structure Deformation and Curvature Sensing of PIEZO1 in Lipid Membranes,” Nature 604, no. 7905 (2022): 377–383, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04574-8.

[88] Y. C. Lin, Y. R. Guo, and A. Miyagi, “Force-Induced Conformational Changes in PIEZO1,” Nature 573, no. 7773 (2019): 230–234, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1499-2.

[89] Y. Liu, H. Tian, Y. Hu, et al., “Mechanosensitive Piezo1 is Crucial for Periosteal Stem Cell-Mediated Fracture Healing,” International Journal of Biological Sciences 18, no. 10 (2022): 3961–3980, https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.71390.

[90] T. Zhou, B. Gao, and Y. Fan, “Piezo1/2 Mediate Mechanotransduction Essential for Bone Formation Through Concerted Activation of NFAT-YAP1-ß-Catenin,” eLife 9 (2020): e52779, https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.52779.

[91] B. S. Eftekhari, M. Eskandari, and P. A. Janmey, “Surface Topography and Electrical Signaling: Single and Synergistic Effects on Neural Differentiation of Stem Cells,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 25 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201907792.

[92] W. Zhang, Y. Yang, and B. X. Cui, “New Perspectives on the Roles of Nanoscale Surface Topography in Modulating Intracellular Signaling,” Current Opinion in Solid State & Materials Science 25, no. 1 (2021): 100873, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cossms.2020.100873.

[93] D. Sprinzak and S. C. Blacklow, “Biophysics of Notch Signaling,” Annual Review of Biophysics 50 (2021): 157–189, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biophys-101920-082204.

[94] F. Wang, S. Li, and L. Kong, “Tensile Stress-Activated and Exosome-Transferred YAP/TAZ-Notch Circuit Specifies Type H Endothelial Cell for Segmental Bone Regeneration,” Advanced Science 11, no. 12 (2024): e2309133, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202309133.

[95] R. Baron and M. Kneissel, “WNT Signaling in Bone Homeostasis and Disease: From Human Mutations to Treatments,” Nature Medicine 19, no. 2 (2013): 179–192, https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.3074.

[96] S. Xie, D. Zeng, H. Luo, et al., “Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 and Pulsed Electrical Stimulation Synergistically Promoted Osteogenic Differentiation on MC-3T3-E1 Cells,” Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 479, no. 11 (2024): 3107–3118, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-023-04916-8.

[97] K. Srirussamee, S. Mobini, and N. J. Cassidy, “Direct Electrical Stimulation Enhances Osteogenesis by Inducing Bmp2 and Spp1 Expressions From Macrophages and Preosteoblasts,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering 116, no. 12 (2019): 3421–3432, https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.27142.

[98] S. H. Bhang, W. S. Jang, and J. Han, “Zinc Oxide Nanorod-Based Piezoelectric Dermal Patch for Wound Healing,” Advanced Functional Materials 27, no. 1 (2017): 1603497, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201603497.

[99] J. Wu, W. Wang, and Y. Tian, “Piezotronic Effect Boosted Photocatalytic Performance of Heterostructured BaTiO₃/TiO₂ Nanofibers for Degradation of Organic Pollutants,” Nano Energy 77 (2020): 105122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105122.

[100] T. Ma, R. Jacobs, and J. Booske, “Discovery and Engineering of Low Work Function Perovskite Materials,” Journal of Materials Chemistry C 9, no. 37 (2021): 12778–12790, https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TC01286J.

[101] W. Xu, K. Li, and L. Shen, “Piezodeposition of Metal Cocatalysts for Promoted Piezocatalytic Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Hydrogen in Water,” Chemcatchem 14, no. 16 (2022): e202200312, https://doi.org/10.1002/cctc.202200312.

[102] Y. Dong, Z. Zhou, and R. Liang, “Correlation Between the Grain Size and Phase Structure, Electrical Properties in BiScO₃-PbTiO₃-Based Piezoelectric Ceramics,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society 103, no. 9 (2020): 4785–4793, https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17174.

[103] P. Shirazi, G. Ico, and C. S. Anderson, “Size-Dependent Piezoelectric Properties of Electrospun BaTiO₃ for Enhanced Energy Harvesting,” Advanced Sustainable Systems 1 (2017): 1700091, https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.201700091.

[104] G. Zhang, X. Zhang, and T. Yang, “Colossal Room-Temperature Electrocaloric Effect in Ferroelectric Polymer Nanocomposites Using Nanostructured Barium Strontium Titanates,” ACS Nano 9, no. 7 (2015): 7164–7174, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b03371.

[105] X. Wang, H. Pan, and M. Murugananthan, “Gas-Phase Photoelectrocatalytic Oxidation of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Defective WO₃/TiO₂ Nanotubes Mesh,” 2022, no. 6 (2022): 2172–2181, https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EN00130F.

[106] D. M. Liu D, J. T. Zhang, C.-C. Jin, et al., “Insight Into Oxygen-Vacancy Regulation on Piezocatalytic Activity of (Bi_1/2Na_1/2)TiO₃ Crystallites: Experiments and First-Principles Calculations,” Nano Energy 95 (2022): 106975, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.106975.

[107] C.-C. Jin, J.-D. Ai, and D.-M. Liu, “Significantly Enhanced Piezocatalytic Activity of BaTiO₃ by Regulating the Quenching Process,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11, no. 19 (2023): 10360–10370, https://doi.org/10.1039/D3TA00715D.

[108] M. Ji, J. H. Kim, and C. H. Ryu, “Synthesis of Self-Modified Black BaTiO_3−X Nanoparticles and Effect of Oxygen Vacancy for the Expansion of Piezocatalytic Application,” Nano Energy 95 (2022): 106993, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.106993.

[109] Y. Wang and J. M. Wu, “Effect of Controlled Oxygen Vacancy on H₂-Production Through the Piezocatalysis and Piezophototronics of Ferroelectric R₃C ZnSnO₃ Nanowires,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 5 (2019): 1907619, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201907619.

[110] S. Venkataraman, J. L. Hedrick, and Z. Y. Ong, “The Effects of Polymeric Nanostructure Shape on Drug Delivery,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 63, no. 14–15 (2011): 1228–1246, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2011.06.016.

[111] A. N. Zhang Y C, L. Pan, et al., “Structure-Activity Relationship of Defective Metal-Based Photocatalysts for Water Splitting: Experimental and Theoretical Perspectives,” Advanced Science 6, no. 10 (2019): 1900053, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201900053.

[112] J. Yang, M. Zhang, and M. Chen, “Oxygen Vacancies in Piezoelectric ZnO Twin-Mesocrystal to Improve Peroxymonosulfate Utilization Efficiency via Piezo-Activation for Antibiotic Ornidazole Removal,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 13 (2023): e2209885, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202209885.

[113] Z. Kang, E. Lin, and N. Qin, “Effect of Oxygen Vacancies and Crystal Symmetry on Piezocatalytic Properties of Bi₂WO₆ Ferroelectric Nanosheets for Wastewater Decontamination,” Environmental Science Nano 8, no. 3 (2021): 1376–1388, https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EN00022E.

[114] C. Yu, S. Lan, and S. Cheng, “Ba Substituted SrTiO₃ Induced Lattice Deformation for Enhanced Piezocatalytic Removal of Carbamazepine From Water,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 424, no. Pt B (2022): 127440, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127440.

[115] Q. Zhou, N. Li, and D. Chen, “Efficient Removal of Bisphenol A in Water via Piezocatalytic Degradation by Equivalent-Vanadium-Doped SrTiO₃ Nanofibers,” Chemical Engineering Science 247 (2022): 116707, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2021.116707.

[116] J. Lei, C. Wang, and X. Feng, “Sulfur-Regulated Defect Engineering for Enhanced Ultrasonic Piezocatalytic Therapy of Bacteria-Infected Bone Defects,” Chemical Engineering Journal 435, no. Part 1 (2022): 134624, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.134624.

[117] P. Martins, A. C. Lopes, and S. Lanceros-Mendez, “Electroactive Phases of Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride): Determination, Processing and Applications,” Progress in Polymer Science 39, no. 4 (2014): 683–706, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.07.006.

[118] Y. Li, L. L. Sun, and T. J. Webster, “The Investigation of ZnO/Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) Nanocomposites With Improved Mechanical, Piezoelectric, and Antimicrobial Properties for Orthopedic Applications,” Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology 14, no. 3 (2018): 536–545, https://doi.org/10.1166/jbn.2018.2519.

[119] X. M. Liao, X. Q. Chen, and Y. Tang, “Enhanced Piezocatalytic Reactive Oxygen Species Production Activity and Recyclability of the Dual Piezoelectric Cu₃B₂O₆/PVDF Composite Membrane,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 1 (2023): 1286–1295, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c19083.

[120] C. Shuai, G. Liu, and Y. Yang, “A Strawberry-Like Ag-Decorated Barium Titanate Enhances Piezoelectric and Antibacterial Activities of Polymer Scaffold,” Nano Energy 74 (2020): 104825, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104825.

[121] W. Wu and Z. L. Wang, “Piezotronics and Piezo-phototronics for Adaptive Electronics and Optoelectronics,” Nature Reviews Materials 1, no. 7 (2016): 16031, https://doi.org/10.1038/natrevmats.2016.31.

[122] K. Isoda, T. Daibo, K. Yushina, et al., “Hepatotoxicity, Nephrotoxicity, and Drug/Chemical Interaction Toxicity of Platinum Nanoparticles in Mice,” Die Pharmazie 72, no. 1 (2017): 10–16, https://doi.org/10.1691/ph.2017.6758.

[123] J. Li, X. Liu, Y. Zheng, et al., “Achieving Fast Charge Separation by Ferroelectric Ultrasonic Interfacial Engineering for Rapid Sonotherapy of Bacteria-Infected Osteomyelitis,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 13 (2023): e2210296, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202210296.

[124] C. F. Wang, W. C. Sun, and Y. M. Xiang, “Ultrasound-Activated Piezoelectric MoS₂ Enhances Sonodynamic for Bacterial Killing,” Small Science 3, no. 7 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1002/smsc.202300022.

[125] J. An, H. Hong, and M. Won, “Mechanical Stimuli-Driven Cancer Therapeutics,” Chemical Society Reviews 52, no. 1 (2023): 30–46, https://doi.org/10.1039/D2CS00546H.

[126] A. W. Simonson, A. S. Mongia, and M. R. Aronson, “Pathogen-Specific Antimicrobials Engineered De Novo Through Membrane-Protein Biomimicry,” Nature Biomedical Engineering 5, no. 5 (2021): 467–480, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41551-020-00665-x.

[127] N. D. T. Tram, J. Xu, and D. Mukherjee, “Bacteria-Responsive Self-Assembly of Antimicrobial Peptide Nanonets for Trap-and-Kill of Antibiotic-Resistant Strains,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 5 (2023): 2210858, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202210858.

[128] K. Qurbani, O. Amiri, and H. Hamzah, “Piezocatalysts as Antimicrobial Agents: A Promising Frontier in Pathogenic Bacteria Control,” Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 17 (2025): 100546, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100546.

[129] W. Xu, Y. Yu, and K. Li, “Surface-Confined Piezocatalysis Inspired by ROS Generation of Mitochondria Respiratory Chain for Ultrasound-Driven Noninvasive Elimination of Implant Infection,” ACS Nano 17, no. 10 (2023): 9415–9428, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.3c01480.

[130] Y. Chen, C. Wang, Z. Zhang, et al., “3D-Printed Piezocatalytic Hydrogels for Effective Antibacterial Treatment of Infected Wounds,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 268 (2024): 131637, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131637.

[131] S. Shi, Y. Jiang, Y. Yu, et al., “Piezo-Augmented and Photocatalytic Nanozyme Integrated Microneedles for Antibacterial and Anti-Inflammatory Combination Therapy,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 10 (2022): 2210850, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202210850.

[132] Q. Bai, J. Zhang, Y. Yu, et al., “Piezoelectric Activatable Nanozyme-Based Skin Patch for Rapid Wound Disinfection,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 14, no. 23 (2022): 26455–26468, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c05114.

[133] X. A. L. Qian, A. Teliang, C. Huang, et al., “Bioinspired Sonodynamic Nano Spray Accelerates Infected Wound Healing via Targeting and Disturbing Bacterial Metabolism,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 28 (2024): 2315576, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202315576.

[134] B. Dai C X, S. Zhang, X. Li, et al., “Synergistic Photodynamic and Piezocatalytic Therapies for Enhanced Infected Wound Healing via Piezo-Phototronic Effect,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2505084, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202505084.

[135] X. Feng, L. Ma, and J. Lei, “Piezo-Augmented Sonosensitizer With Strong Ultrasound-Propelling Ability for Efficient Treatment of Osteomyelitis,” ACS Nano 16, no. 2 (2022): 2546–2557, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.1c09189.

[136] J. N. Fu, S. L. Wu, and S. L. Zhu, “Ultrasound-Controlled Electron-Phonon Coupling Augmenting Catalysis of Piezoelectric-Based Sonosensitizer Safely against Osteomyelitis,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 38 (2023): 2304162, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202304162.

[137] T. X. Ding, F. W. Liu, and H. Xin, “Pyro-Piezoelectric Effect of BaTiO₃ Bio-Nanocarrier for Osteomyelitis Therapy,” Nano Today 54, (2024): 102069, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2023.102069.

[138] X. Feng, J. Lei, and L. Ma, “Ultrasonic Interfacial Engineering of MoS₂-Modified Zn Single-Atom Catalysts for Efficient Osteomyelitis Sonodynamic Ion Therapy,” Small 18, no. 8 (2022): e2105775, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202105775.

[139] H. Wang, N. Mu, Y. He, et al., “Ultrasound-Controlled MXene-Based Schottky Heterojunction Improves Anti-Infection and Osteogenesis Properties,” Theranostics 13, no. 5 (2023): 1669–1683, https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.81511.

[140] C. Wang, J. Lei, and C. Mao, “Defective S-TiO_2−x /CeO₂ Heterojunction for Mutual Reinforcing Chemodynamic/Sonocatalytic Antibacterial Therapy and Sonoelectric/Ion-Activated Bone Regeneration,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 41 (2023): 2306493, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202306493.

[141] Y. Huang, X. Wan, and Q. Su, “Ultrasound-Activated Piezo-Hot Carriers Trigger Tandem Catalysis Coordinating Cuproptosis-Like Bacterial Death Against Implant Infections,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 1643, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45619-y.

[142] Q. Pan, Y. Zheng, Y. Zhou, et al., “Doping Engineering of Piezo-Sonocatalytic Nanocoating Confer Dental Implants With Enhanced Antibacterial Performances and Osteogenic Activity,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 21 (2024): 2313553, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202313553.

[143] M. Sun, J. Wang, and X. Huang, “Ultrasound-Driven Radical Chain Reaction and Immunoregulation of Piezoelectric-Based Hybrid Coating for Treating Implant Infection,” Biomaterials 307 (2024): 122532, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2024.122532.

[144] W. X. Xu, K. Li, and L. B. Shen, “Piezodeposition of Metal Cocatalysts for Promoted Piezocatalytic Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Hydrogen in Water,” Chemcatchem 14, no. 16 (2022): e202200312, https://doi.org/10.1002/cctc.202200312.

[145] S. Masimukku, Y.-C. Hu, Z.-H. Lin, S.-W. Chan, T.-M. Chou, and J. M. Wu, “High Efficient Degradation of Dye Molecules by PDMS Embedded Abundant Single-Layer Tungsten Disulfide and Their Antibacterial Performance,” Nano Energy 46 (2018): 338–346, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.02.008.

[146] K. Yang, C. Shi, Z. Yin, et al., “Iron Metabolism Interference-Enhanced Sonodynamic Therapy of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus-Induced Osteomyelitis by CaCO₃-Ga-PPIX@PEG Nanospheres,” Nano Today 56 (2024): 102299, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2024.102299.

[147] C. Liu, A. Bayer, and S. E. Cosgrove, “Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the Treatment of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections in Adults and Children,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 52, no. 3 (2011): e18–e55, https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciq146.

[148] J. Fu, Y. Li, and Y. Zhang, “An Engineered Pseudo-Macrophage for Rapid Treatment of Bacteria-Infected Osteomyelitis via Microwave-Excited Anti-Infection and Immunoregulation,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 41 (2021): e2102926, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202102926.

[149] B. Wang, J. Yu, and L. Sui, “Rational Design of Multi-Color-Emissive Carbon Dots in a Single Reaction System by Hydrothermal,” Advanced Science 8, no. 1 (2020): 2001453, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202001453.

[150] Z. Jiang, W. Xiao, and Q. Fu, “Stimuli Responsive Nanosonosensitizers for Sonodynamic Therapy,” Journal of Controlled Release 361 (2023): 547–567, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.08.003.

[151] J. Ouyang, Z. M. Tang, and N. Farokhzad, “Ultrasound Mediated Therapy: Recent Progress and Challenges in Nanoscience,” Nano Today 35 (2020): 100949, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2020.100949.

[152] Y. Yu, L. Tan, and Z. Li, “Single-Atom Catalysis for Efficient Sonodynamic Therapy of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus-Infected Osteomyelitis,” ACS nano 15, no. 6 (2021): 10628–10639, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.1c03424.

[153] A. Russo, A. Gatti, and S. Felici, “Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Debridement as New Tool for Biofilm Removal From Orthopedic Implants: A Study In Vitro,” Journal of Orthopaedic Research 41, no. 12 (2023): 2749–2755, https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.25599.

[154] Y. Fan, J. Zhai, and Z. Wang, “Piezoelectric Heterojunctions as Bacteria-Killing Bone-Regenerative Implants,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 1 (2024): e2413171, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202413171.

[155] F. Zheng, X. Wan, and Y. Zhang, “A Multimodal Defect-Rich Nanoreactor Triggers Sono-Piezoelectric Tandem Catalysis and Iron Metabolism Disruption for Implant Infections,” Science Advances 11, no. 11 (2025): eads8694, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads8694.

[156] S. Deng, Y. Zhang, Z. Qiao, et al., “Hierarchically Designed Biodegradable Polylactide Particles With Unprecedented Piezocatalytic Activity and Biosafety for Tooth Whitening,” Biomacromolecules 24, no. 2 (2023): 797–806, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.2c01252.

[157] K. Kapat, Q. T. H. Shubhra, and M. Zhou, “Piezoelectric Nano-Biomaterials for Biomedicine and Tissue Regeneration,” Advanced Functional Materials 30 (2020): 1909045, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201909045.

[158] J. Sun, W. Xie, Y. Wu, et al., “Accelerated Bone Healing via Electrical Stimulation,” Advanced Science 12, no. 24 (2024): e2404190, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202404190.

[159] M. Q. Wu, Z. Y. Zhang, and Z. R. Liu, “Piezoelectric Nanocomposites for Sonodynamic Bacterial Elimination and Wound Healing,” Nano Today 37 (2021): 101104, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2021.101104.

[160] Z. Zhu, X. Gou, L. Liu, et al., “Dynamically Evolving Piezoelectric Nanocomposites for Antibacterial and Repair-Promoting Applications in Infected Wound Healing,” Acta Biomaterialia 157 (2023): 566–577, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2022.11.061.

[161] M. Xu, S. Wu, L. Ding, et al., “Engineering Ultrasound-Activated Piezoelectric Hydrogels With Antibacterial Activity to Promote Wound Healing,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 11, no. 19 (2023): 4318–4329, https://doi.org/10.1039/D3TB00284E.

[162] Y. H. Lai, S. R. Barman, and A. Ganguly, “Oxygen-Producing Composite Dressing Activated by Photothermal and Piezoelectric Effects for Accelerated Healing of Infected Wounds,” Chemical Engineering Journal 476 (2023): 146744, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.146744.

[163] D. He, W. Wang, and N. Feng, “Defect-Modified Nano-BaTiO₃ as a Sonosensitizer for Rapid and High-Efficiency Sonodynamic Sterilization,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 12 (2023): 15140–15151, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c23113.

[164] D. Liu, L. Li, and B. L. Shi, “Ultrasound-Triggered Piezocatalytic Composite Hydrogels for Promoting Bacterial-Infected Wound Healing,” Bioactive Materials 24 (2023): 96–111, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.11.023.

[165] R. Das, T. T. Le, and B. Schiff, “Biodegradable Piezoelectric Skin-Wound Scaffold,” Biomaterials 301 (2023): 122270, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122270.

[166] C. C. Lei, J. Lei, and X. G. Zhang, “Heterostructured Piezocatalytic Nanoparticles With Enhanced Ultrasound Response for Efficient Repair of Infectious Bone Defects,” Acta Biomaterialia 172 (2023): 343–354, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2023.10.006.

[167] Z. R. Chen, J. Q. Zheng, and X. M. Pei, “Ultrasound-Driven Electrical Stimulation Based on 3D Hierarchical Porous Piezoelectric Nanofiber-Aerogel Scaffold Promotes Bone Defect Repair,” Chemical Engineering Journal 470 (2023): 144305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.144305.

[168] J. Sun, J. Zhang, and L. Yang, “Piezocatalytic Strategy Facilitates Diabetic Bone Regeneration Through High-Performance Anti-Oxidative Recycling,” Chemical Engineering Journal 480 (2024): 147931, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.147931.

[169] Z. Lv, Y. Wu, and J. Lin, “Schottky Heterojunction Facilitates Osteosarcoma Ferroptosis and Enhances Bone Formation in a Switchable Mode,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 10 (2024): 2312032, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202312032.

[170] X. Liu, X. Wan, B. Sui, et al., “Piezoelectric Hydrogel for Treatment of Periodontitis Through Bioenergetic Activation,” Bioactive Materials 35 (2024): 346–361, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.02.011.

[171] D. Liu, X. Wang, and C. Gao, “Biodegradable Piezoelectric-Conductive Integrated Hydrogel Scaffold for Repair of Osteochondral Defects,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 45 (2024): e2409400, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202409400.

[172] Z. Han, F. Wang, and W. Xiong, “Precise Cell Type Electrical Stimulation Therapy via Force-Electric Hydrogel Microspheres for Cartilage Healing,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 7 (2025): e2414555, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202414555.

[173] W. Pi, F. Rao, and J. W. Cao, “Sono-Electro-Mechanical Therapy for Peripheral Nerve Regeneration Through Piezoelectric Nanotracts,” Nano Today 50 (2023): 101860, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2023.101860.

[174] P. Chen, C. Xu, P. Wu, et al., “Wirelessly Powered Electrical-Stimulation Based on Biodegradable 3D Piezoelectric Scaffolds Promotes the Spinal Cord Injury Repair,” ACS Nano 16, no. 10 (2022): 16513–16528, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c05818.

[175] Y. Shan, L. Xu, X. Cui, et al., “A Neurodevelopment-Inspired Self-Evolving Scaffold for Nerve Regeneration,” Cell Biomaterials 1, no. 1 (2025): 100006, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celbio.2024.100006.

[176] S. Bian, H. Ye, and P. Wang, “Antibacterial Hydrogel: The Sniper of Chronic Wounds,” BMEMat 3 (2025): e12135, https://doi.org/10.1002/bmm2.12135.

[177] Q. Xu, W. Dai, and P. Li, “Piezoelectric Film Promotes Skin Wound Healing With Enhanced Collagen Deposition and Vessels Regeneration via Upregulation of PI3K/AKT,” Nano Research 17, no. 8 (2024): 7461–7478, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-024-6717-z.

[178] F. Wang, J. Qiu, and S. Guan, “An Ultrasound-Responsive Hydrogel With Piezoelectric-Enhanced Electrokinetic Effect Accelerates Neurovascular Regeneration for Diabetic Wound Healing,” Materials Today 84 (2025): 48–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2025.02.003.

[179] M. Peng, Q. Zhao, and A. Chai, “A Ferroelectric Living Interface for Fine-Tuned Exosome Secretion Toward Physiology-Mimetic Neurovascular Remodeling,” Matter 8, no. 2 (2025): 101901, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2024.10.019.

[180] Y. Shi, X. Feng, and L. Lin, “Virus-Inspired Surface-Nanoengineered Antimicrobial Liposome: A Potential System to Simultaneously Achieve High Activity and Selectivity,” Bioactive Materials 6, no. 10 (2021): 3207–3217, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.02.038.

[181] R. V. Chernozem, M. A. Surmeneva, and A. A. Abalymov, “Piezoelectric Hybrid Scaffolds Mineralized With Calcium Carbonate for Tissue Engineering: Analysis of Local Enzyme and Small-Molecule Drug Delivery, Cell Response and Antibacterial Performance,” Materials Science and Engineering: C 122 (2021): 111909, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2021.111909.

[182] Z. Liu, X. Wan, and Z. L. Wang, “Electroactive Biomaterials and Systems for Cell Fate Determination and Tissue Regeneration: Design and Applications,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 32 (2021): e2007429, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202007429.

[183] Y. Shen, Q. Tang, and J. Wang, “Targeting RORα in Macrophages to Boost Diabetic Bone Regeneration,” Cell Proliferation 56, no. 10 (2023): e13474, https://doi.org/10.1111/cpr.13474.

[184] N. Zhou, H. Huang, H. Liu, et al., “Microbiota Analysis of Peri-Implant Mucositis in Patients With Periodontitis History,” Clinical Oral Investigations 26, no. 10 (2022): 6223–6233, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-022-04571-1.

[185] J. Zhang, Z. Fang, and H. Dong, “MnFe@N-CNTs Based Lactate Biomicrochips for Nonintrusive and Onsite Periodontitis Diagnosis,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 16, no. 16 (2024): 20221–20231, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c00979.

[186] S. S. Niroshani, W. Hansani, and R. Madushani, “Clinical Efficacy of Local Application of Sustained-Release Metronidazole in Periodontal Therapy,” Dentistry Review 1, no. 1 (2021): 100006, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dentre.2021.100006.

[187] S. Corbella, E. Calciolari, and A. Alberti, “Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Adjunctive Use of Host Immune Modulators in Non-Surgical Periodontal Treatment in Healthy and Systemically Compromised Patients,” Scientific Reports 11, no. 1 (2021): 12125, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-91506-7.

[188] B. Sui, T. Ding, and X. Wan, “Piezoelectric Stimulation Enhances Bone Regeneration in Alveolar Bone Defects Through Metabolic Reprogramming of Macrophages,” Exploration 4, no. 6 (2024): 20230149, https://doi.org/10.1002/EXP.20230149.

[189] L. Wu, H. Gao, and Q. Han, “Piezoelectric Materials for Neuroregeneration: A Review,” Biomaterials Science 11, no. 22 (2023): 7296–7310, https://doi.org/10.1039/D3BM01111A.

[190] Y. Qian, Y. Cheng, J. Song, et al., “Mechano-Informed Biomimetic Polymer Scaffolds by Incorporating Self-Powered Zinc Oxide Nanogenerators Enhance Motor Recovery and Neural Function,” Small 16, no. 32 (2020): e2000796, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202000796.

[191] S. Vijayavenkataraman, “Nerve Guide Conduits for Peripheral Nerve Injury Repair: A Review on Design, Materials and Fabrication Methods,” Acta Biomaterialia 106 (2020): 54–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.02.003.

[192] B. Gong, X. Zhang, and A. A. Zahrani, “Neural Tissue Engineering: From Bioactive Scaffolds and In Situ Monitoring to Regeneration,” Exploration 2, no. 3 (2022): 20210035, https://doi.org/10.1002/EXP.20210035.

[193] G. A. Silva, “Neuroscience Nanotechnology: Progress, Opportunities and Challenges,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7, no. 1 (2006): 65–74, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1827.

[194] K. J. Zuo, T. Gordon, and K. M. Chan, “Electrical Stimulation to Enhance Peripheral Nerve Regeneration: Update in Molecular Investigations and Clinical Translation,” Experimental Neurology 332 (2020): 113397, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113397.

[195] L. Liu, B. Chen, and K. Liu, “Wireless Manipulation of Magnetic/Piezoelectric Micromotors for Precise Neural Stem-Like Cell Stimulation,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 11 (2020): 1910108, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201910108.

[196] W. Wang, K. Li, and W. Ma, “Ultrasound-Activated Piezoelectric Nanostickers for Neural Stem Cell Therapy of Traumatic Brain Injury,” Nature Materials 24 (2025): 1137–1150, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-025-02214-w.

[197] B. Yang, Y. Chen, and J. Shi, “Nanocatalytic Medicine,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 39 (2019): e1901778, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201901778.

[198] J. Hao, N. A. N. N. Malek, W. H. A. Kamaruddin, and J. Li, “Breaking Piezoelectric Limits of Molecules for Biodegradable Implants,” BMEMat 2, no. 2 (2024): e12087, https://doi.org/10.1002/bmm2.12087.

[199] T. T. Lee, J. R. García, and J. I. Paez, “Light-Triggered In Vivo Activation of Adhesive Peptides Regulates Cell Adhesion, Inflammation and Vascularization of Biomaterials,” Nature Materials 14, no. 3 (2015): 352–360, https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat4157.

[200] C. Chen, X. Bai, and Y. Ding, “Electrical Stimulation as a Novel Tool for Regulating Cell Behavior in Tissue Engineering,” Biomaterials Research 23 (2019): 25, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40824-019-0176-8.

[201] E. M. Forsberg, T. Huan, and D. Rinehart, “Data Processing, Multi-Omic Pathway Mapping, and Metabolite Activity Analysis Using XCMS Online,” Nature Protocols 13, no. 4 (2018): 633–651, https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2017.151.

[202] J. Nam, S. Son, and K. S. Park, et al., “Cancer Nanomedicine for Combination Cancer Immunotherapy,” Nature Reviews Materials 4 (2019): 398–414, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-019-0108-1.

[203] A. Khan, R. Joshi, M. K. Sharma, et al., “The Potential of Organic Piezoelectric Materials for Next-Generation Implantable Biomedical Devices,” Nano Trends 6 (2024): 100032, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nwnano.2024.100032.

[204] A. Khan, R. Joshi, M. K. Sharma, et al., “Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Nanogenerators: Promising Technologies for Self-Powered Implantable Biomedical Devices,” Nano Energy 119 (2024): 109051, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.109051.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). Exploration published by Henan University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.