Performance and environmental impact analysis of thermoelectric generators through material selection and geometry optimization

Abstract

This study evaluates the performance and environmental impact of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) by analyzing various thermoelectric materials and system geometries. A comprehensive life cycle assessment is conducted to quantify the embodied energy and carbon emissions associated with different materials. The study employs particle swarm optimization to optimize TEG geometry, aiming to enhance power output while minimizing environmental impact. The results demonstrate that material selection significantly influences both energy conversion efficiency and sustainability. Specifically, PbTe-based TEGs achieve the highest power output, whereas SiGe-based modules exhibit the highest environmental footprint. Through optimization, an 80% increase in power output is achieved for certain configurations, alongside a reduction in CO₂ emissions. Key findings highlight PbTe-based TEGs as the most efficient energy converters, while Bi₂Te₃-based modules strike a balance between performance and sustainability. In contrast, SiGe-based TEGs have the highest environmental footprint due to their high embodied energy. Additionally, the study reveals that optimizing the number of thermocouples and leg dimensions significantly improves energy conversion efficiency and reduces carbon emissions. These findings provide valuable insights for designing next-generation TEG systems that effectively balance performance and environmental responsibility.

Keywords

TEG materials / leg geometry / geometry optimization / embodied energy / environmental impact.

References

[1] Khenfer R,Rouabah Z.Experimental investigation of water-based photovoltaic/thermal-thermoelectric hybrid system: energy, exergy, economic and environmental assessment.J Power Sources2024;598:234151

[2] Lekbir A,Mekhilef S.Techno-economic and life cycle assessment of a nanofluid-based concentrated Photovoltaic/Thermal-Thermoelectric hybrid system.J Power Sources2024;595:234066

[3] Gielen D,Saygin D,Wagner N.The role of renewable energy in the global energy transformation.Energy Strategy Rev2019;24:38-50

[4] Mehta P,Kumar C,Bhowmick A.Energy harvesting techniques and trends in electronic applications. In: Nella A, Bhowmick A, Kumar C, Rajagopal M, editors. Energy harvesting trends for low power compact electronic devices. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2023. pp. 205-20.

[5] Muchuweni E.Recent advances in thermoelectric performance by incorporating graphene-based materials for energy harvesting.Renew Energy Focus2023;45:40-52

[6] Xin J,Li S,Tjin SC.Inorganic thermoelectric fibers: a review of materials, fabrication methods, and applications.Sensors2021;21:3437 PMCID:PMC8156617

[7] Mamur H,Begum J.Thermoelectric generators act as renewable energy sources.Cleaner Mater2021;2:100030

[8] Olabi A,Maghrabie HM.Potential applications of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) in various waste heat recovery systems.Int J Thermofluids2022;16:100249

[9] Manghwar R,Abd Rahim N,Khoharo H.Global advancements of solar thermoelectric generators application, limitations, and prospects: a comprehensive review.Appl Therm Eng2024;257:124231

[10] Rjafallah A,Cotfas DT.Effects of temperature uniformity and nonuniformity on thermoelectric generator performance across hot and cold sides.Case Stud Therm Eng2024;59:104596

[11] Lekbir A,Ab Ghani MR,Mekhilef S.Improved energy conversion performance of a novel design of concentrated photovoltaic system combined with thermoelectric generator with advance cooling system.Energy Convers Manag2018;177:19-29

[12] Shi X,Chen W.Advances in flexible inorganic thermoelectrics.EcoEnergy2023;1:296-343

[13] Zheng Z,Ao D.Harvesting waste heat with flexible Bi₂Te₃ thermoelectric thin film.Nat Sustain2023;6:180-91

[14] Chen YX,Zhang JZ.Deviceization of high-performance and flexible Ag₂Se films for electronic skin and servo rotation angle control.Nat Commun2024;15:8356 PMCID:PMC11436659

[15] Zhang M,Liu S.Compositing effect leads to extraordinary performance in GeSe-based thermoelectrics.Adv Funct Mater2025;2500898

[16] Hu B,Cao T.Realizing high performance in flexible Mg₃Sb_2-xBi_x thin-film thermoelectrics.Adv Sci2025;e2502683

[17] Chan Z.Life cycle analysis of thermoelectric generator efficiency for waste heat recovery.AIP Conf Proc2020;2233:020003

[18] Lan Y,Wang S.Study of the geometry and structure of a thermoelectric leg with variable material properties and side heat dissipation based on thermodynamic, economic, and environmental analysis.Energy2023;282:128895

[19] Ibn-Mohammed T,Mustapha K.Techno-environmental analysis of material substitution in thermoelectric modules: non-oxide (bismuth telluride alloys) vs. oxide-based (lanthanum-doped strontium titanate and calcium cobaltite) materials.Energy Convers Manag X2023;19:100395

[20] Soleimani Z,Ceranic B,Cui Y.The cradle to gate life-cycle assessment of thermoelectric materials: A comparison of inorganic, organic and hybrid types.Sustain Energy Technol Assess2021;44:101073

[21] Dhawan R,Hu G.Si_0.97Ge_0.03 microelectronic thermoelectric generators with high power and voltage densities.Nat Commun2020;11:4362 PMCID:PMC7458905

[22] Pavlovskaya NT,Ugrin YO,Ostrovskii IP.Magnetoresistance of proton irradiated Si_0.97Ge_0.03 whiskers.Mod Electron Mater2016;2:85-8

[23] Parashchuk T,Nykyruy L.High thermoelectric performance of p-type Bi_0.5Sb_1.5Te₃ films on flexible substrate.Mater Chem Phys2020;253:123427

[24] Lemine AS,Al-Ghanim HA.Experimental and modeling analysis of p-type Bi_0.4Sb_1.6Te₃ and graphene nanocomposites.J Mater Res Technol2022;16:1702-12

[25] Amin A,Newbrook D.Screen-printed bismuth telluride nanostructured composites for flexible thermoelectric applications.J Phys Energy2022;4:024003

[26] Liang J,Peng Y.Synergistic effect of band and nanostructure engineering on the boosted thermoelectric performance of n-type Mg_3+δ(Sb, Bi)₂ Zintls.Adv Energy Mater2022;12:2201086

[27] Imasato K,Pan Y.Metallic n-type Mg₃Sb₂ single crystals demonstrate the absence of ionized impurity scattering and enhanced thermoelectric performance.Adv Mater2020;32:e1908218

[28] Varghese T,Kempf N.Flexible thermoelectric devices of ultrahigh power factor by scalable printing and interface engineering.Adv Funct Mater2020;30:1905796

[29] Pandit A,Hamad B.Structural, electronic and thermoelectric properties of Pb_1-xSn_xTe alloys.J Electron Mater2020;49:586-92

[30] Kungumadevi L.Structural, electrical, and optical properties of PbTe thin films prepared by simple flash evaporation method.Adv Condens Matter Phys2012;2012:1-5

[31] Norimasa O,Hase M,Takashiri M.Improvement of thermoelectric properties of flexible Bi₂Te₃ thin films in bent states during sputtering deposition and post-thermal annealing.J Alloys Compd2022;898:162889

[32] Park D,Jeong K,Song JY.Thermal and electrical conduction of single-crystal Bi₂Te₃ nanostructures grown using a one step process.Sci Rep2016;6:19132 PMCID:PMC4707524

[33] Sun Z,Lin S.Stoichiometric effect of Sb₂Te₃ thin film on thermoelectric property.ACS Appl Energy Mater2022;5:7026-33

[34] Endo R,Jinnai Y.Electric resistivity measurements of Sb₂Te₃ and Ge₂Sb₂Te₅ melts using four-terminal method.Jpn J Appl Phys2010;49:065802

[35] Liu Z,Tong X,Zhao W.A review of CoSb₃-based skutterudite thermoelectric materials.J Adv Ceram2020;9:647-73

[36] Bourgès C,Raut KK.Investigation of Mn single and Co-doping in thermoelectric CoSb₃-skutterudite: a way toward a beneficial composite effect.ACS Appl Energy Mater2023;6:9646-56

[37] Lin J,Liu Q.Continuous phase transition in thermoelectric Zn₄Sb₃.Mater Today Energy2021;21:100787

[38] Zou T,Zhang Y.Enhanced thermoelectric performance of β-Zn₄Sb₃ based nanocomposites through combined effects of density of states resonance and carrier energy filtering.Sci Rep2015;5:17803 PMCID:PMC4678945

[39] Fatima K,Ali A,Asghar M.Annealing effect on seebeck coefficient of SiGe thin films deposited on quartz substrate.Coatings2021;11:1435

[40] Fan Z,Chen J.Realizing high thermoelectric performance for p-type SiGe in medium temperature region via TaC compositing.J Materiomics2023;9:984-91

[41] Yamanaka S,Kurosaki K.Thermoelectric properties of Tl₉BiTe₆.J Alloys Compd2003;352:275-8

[42] Lekbir A,Benhadouga S.Higher-efficiency for combined photovoltaic-thermoelectric solar power generation.Int J Green Energy2019;16:371-7

[43] Vovchenko L,Zhuravkov A.Electrical resistivity of compacted TEG and TEG-Fe under compression.J Phys Chem Solids2006;67:1168-72

[44] Hammond GP.Embodied energy and carbon in construction materials.Proc Inst Civ Eng Energy2008;161:87-98

[45] William DC Jr. Materials science and engineering: an introduction, 10th edition; 2018. Available from: https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Materials+Science+and+Engineering%3A+An+Introduction%2C+10th+Edition-p-9781119405498 [Last accessed on 12 May 2025]

[46] Ashby MF. Materials and the environment: eco-informed material choice. Elsevier; 2012. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123859716/materials-and-the-environment [Last accessed on 14 May 2025]

[47] Schivley G,Marriott J,Skone TJ.Identifying/quantifying environmental trade-offs inherent in GHG reduction strategies for coal-fired power.Environ Sci Technol2015;49:7562-70

[48] Jeong B,Kim S,Zhou P.Evaluation of the lifecycle environmental benefits of full battery powered ships: comparative analysis of marine diesel and electricity.J Mar Sci Eng2020;8:580

[49] Wang X,Henshaw P.Mutation particle swarm optimization (M-PSO) of a thermoelectric generator in a multi-variable space.Energy Convers Manag2020;224:113387

[50] Xu G,Shi X.Particle swarm optimization based on dimensional learning strategy.Swarm Evol Comput2019;45:33-51

[51] Ashby M,Figuerola M,Philips L. The CES EduPack materials science and engineering package. 2018. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hannah-Melia/publication/331983339_The_CES_EduPack_Materials_Science_and_Engineering_Package/links/5c98f51f45851506d72bab88/The-CES-EduPack-Materials-Science-and-Engineering-Package.pdf [Last accessed on 14 May 2025]

[52] Embodied energy. Available from: https://www.yourhome.gov.au/materials/embodied-energy [Last accessed on 12 May 2025]

[53] UNEP. Environmental risks and challenges of anthropogenic metals flows and cycles; 2013. Available from: https://www.yourhome.gov.au/materials/embodied-energy [Last accessed on 14 May 2025]

[54] Jaziri N,Müller J,Tounsi F.A comprehensive review of thermoelectric generators: technologies and common applications.Energy Rep2020;6:264-87