Recent advances in spring-assisted triboelectric nanogenerators

Abstract

Spring-assisted triboelectric nanogenerators (S-TENGs) have emerged as effective energy harvesters of low-frequency, low-amplitude vibrations via resonance tuning, amplified relative motion, and enhanced contact force between triboelectric layers. Unlike conventional triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), S-TENGs uniquely harness elastic resonance through integrated spring structures to efficiently harvest low-frequency and subtle mechanical vibrations that are otherwise difficult to convert into electricity, thereby enhancing overall energy conversion efficiency. Recent innovations in triboelectric materials, electrode designs, and structures have enabled the development of high-performance TENGs for sustainable green energy. This review highlights the pivotal role of spring elements in improving S-TENG performance and provides design insights for constructing robust, self-powered, and maintenance-free sensing platforms. Diverse architectures include linear and multi-degree-of-freedom systems, as well as cantilever, tower, helical, magnetic, and composite designs. Each is engineered to optimize vibration response and maximize output performance, enabling it to be used as an independent power source. Hybrid triboelectric-electromagnetic integration, negative-stiffness mechanisms, and mechanical frequency regulation further extend the adaptability of S-TENGs to real-world conditions. Industrial equipment monitoring, wireless carbon dioxide sensing, omnidirectional vibration harvesting, and motor fault detection in unmanned aerial vehicles demonstrate the versatility and practical impact of S-TENGs.

Keywords

Triboelectric nanogenerator / spring resonant structures / vibration energy harvesting / self-powered system / hybrid energy harvesting

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