Recent advances in functionalized separators for shuttle-free and dendrite-free lithium/sodium-sulfur batteries

Abstract

With the extremely high theoretical energy densities, secondary batteries including lithium-sulfur (Li-S) and sodium-sulfur (Na-S) batteries are anticipated to become the leading candidates among metal-sulfur batteries. However, the practical energy density and storage efficiency of Li/Na-sulfur batteries are significantly hindered by several issues: the low conductivity of sulfur cathodes, substantial volume changes during charge and discharge cycles, the shuttle effect caused by metal polysulfides, and uncontrollable dendrite formation on the reactive alkali metal anodes, which also heighten safety concerns. Constructing functionalized separators is considered one of the most promising strategies to overcome these challenges and enhance the performance of Li/Na-sulfur batteries. Functionalized separators offer numerous advantages such as enhanced mechanical stability, bifunctionality in suppressing the shuttle effect and dendrite growth, and minimal impact on battery energy density and volume. However, comprehensive reviews of Li/Na-sulfur functionalized separators are relatively fewer, while the related research has increased significantly. In this context, it is crucial to provide a comprehensive review of recent advances in functionalized separators for Li/Na-sulfur batteries. First, this review offers an in-depth analysis of the current issues faced by Li/Na-sulfur batteries and summarizes the requirements of separators for improving Li/Na-sulfur batteries. Subsequently, a detailed discussion is presented about the performances and applications especially in shuttle effect inhibition and dendrite growth suppression of functionalized separators in Li-S and Na-S batteries. Finally, the review addresses the challenges and potential future research directions for functionalized separators in Li/Na-sulfur batteries.

Keywords

Li-S battery / Na-S battery / functionalized separators / polysulfide shuttle inhibition / dendrite growth suppression

References

[1] Tarascon JM.Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries.Nature2001;414:359-67

[2] Degen F,Bendig D.Energy consumption of current and future production of lithium-ion and post lithium-ion battery cells.Nat Energy2023;8:1284-95

[3] Zhong Y,Zhu C.Mechanistic insights into fast charging and discharging of the sodium metal battery anode: a comparison with lithium.J Am Chem Soc2021;143:13929-36

[4] Lei T,Hu Y.A nonflammable and thermotolerant separator suppresses polysulfide dissolution for safe and long-cycle lithium-sulfur batteries.Adv Energy Mater2018;8:1802441

[5] Li T,Wang C,Su D.The latest advances in the critical factors (positive electrode, electrolytes, separators) for sodium-sulfur battery.J Alloys Compd2019;792:797-817

[6] Pan Y,Liu HK.Functional membrane separators for next-generation high-energy rechargeable batteries.Nat Sci Rev2017;4:917-33

[7] Li Y,Wang L.Ni@Ni₃N embedded on three-dimensional carbon nanosheets for high-performance lithium/sodium-sulfur batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:48536-45

[8] Jiang Y,Zhou X.Single-atom vanadium catalyst boosting reaction kinetics of polysulfides in Na-S batteries.Adv Mater2023;35:e2208873

[9] Zhou X,Yao Y.A high-efficiency Mo₂ C electrocatalyst promoting the polysulfide redox kinetics for Na-S batteries.Adv Mater2022;34:e2200479

[10] Xu W,Ding F.Lithium metal anodes for rechargeable batteries.Energy Environ Sci2014;7:513-37

[11] Zhang Y,Xue Z.Electrode protection and electrolyte optimization via surface modification strategy for high-performance lithium batteries.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2311925

[12] Liu Z,Zhou D.Scavenging of “dead sulfur” and “dead lithium” revealed by integrated-heterogeneous catalysis for advanced lithium-sulfur batteries.Adv Funct Mater2023;33:2306321

[13] Wei Z,Sokolowski J,Wu G.Mechanistic understanding of the role separators playing in advanced lithium-sulfur batteries.InfoMat2020;2:483-508

[14] Hao H,Boyce BL,Liu P.Review of multifunctional separators: stabilizing the cathode and the anode for alkali (Li, Na, and K) metal-sulfur and selenium batteries.Chem Rev2022;122:8053-125

[15] Xu J,Yang J.Review of separator modification strategies: targeting undesired anion transport in room temperature sodium-sulfur/selenium/iodine batteries.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2306206

[16] Xu R,Amine K.Progress in mechanistic understanding and characterization techniques of Li-S batteries.Adv Energy Mater2015;5:1500408

[17] Ding Z,Ortmann T.The impact of microstructure on filament growth at the sodium metal anode in all-solid-state sodium batteries.Adv Energy Mater2023;13:2302322

[18] Wu J,Wang Y.Understanding the catalytic kinetics of polysulfide redox reactions on transition metal compounds in Li-S batteries.ACS Nano2022;16:15734-59

[19] Li C,Xiao Y,Zhang H.Recent progress of separators in lithium-sulfur batteries.Energy Storage Mater2021;40:439-60

[20] Yu X.Capacity enhancement and discharge mechanisms of room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries.ChemElectroChem2014;1:1275-80

[21] Tang W,Xu M.Towards high performance room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries: strategies to avoid shuttle effect.J Colloid Interface Sci2022;606:22-37

[22] Lin L,Huang Y.Challenge and strategies in room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries: a comparison with lithium-sulfur batteries.Small2022;18:e2107368

[23] Cooper ER,Gentle I,Knibbe R.A deeper understanding of metal nucleation and growth in rechargeable metal batteries through theory and experiment.Angew Chem Int Ed2023;62:e202309247

[24] Liu K,Lee HW.Extending the life of lithium-based rechargeable batteries by reaction of lithium dendrites with a novel silica nanoparticle sandwiched separator.Adv Mater2017;29:1603987

[25] Brissot C,Chazalviel JN.In situ concentration cartography in the neighborhood of dendrites growing in lithium/polymer-electrolyte/lithium cells.J Electrochem Soc1999;146:4393-400

[26] Lin D,Li Y.Fast galvanic lithium corrosion involving a Kirkendall-type mechanism.Nat Chem2019;11:382-9

[27] Wang L,Peng L.The promises, challenges and pathways to room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries.Natl Sci Rev2022;9:nwab050 PMCID:PMC8986459

[28] Li Z,Ling F.Room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries: rules for catalyst selection and electrode design.Adv Mater2022;34:e2204214

[29] Kim I,Kim CH.A room temperature Na/S battery using a β″ alumina solid electrolyte separator, tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether electrolyte, and a S/C composite cathode.J Power Sources2016;301:332-7

[30] Guan Y,Liu S,Wang W.Protecting lithium anode with LiNO₃/Al₂O₃/PVDF-coated separator for lithium-sulfur batteries.J Alloys Compd2018;765:544-50

[31] Chen M,Jin J,Tu H.Configurational and structural design of separators toward shuttling-free and dendrite-free lithium-sulfur batteries: a review.Energy Storage Mater2022;47:629-48

[32] Freitag A,Ionov L.Separator for lithium-sulfur battery based on polymer blend membrane.J Power Sources2017;363:384-91

[33] Zhu Y,Jin S.Toward safe and high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries via polyimide nanosheets-modified separator.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2023;11:1434-47

[34] Yuan B,Liang Y.A surfactant-modified composite separator for high safe lithium ion battery.J Energy Chem2023;76:398-403

[35] Gu M,Song Z.Multifunctional asymmetric separator constructed by polyacrylonitrile-derived nanofibers for lithium-sulfur batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2023;15:51241-51

[36] Zhu J,Fu K.Understanding glass fiber membrane used as a novel separator for lithium-sulfur batteries.J Membr Sci2016;504:89-96

[37] Li Y,Zhu P.Glass fiber separator coated by porous carbon nanofiber derived from immiscible PAN/PMMA for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.J Membr Sci2018;552:31-42

[38] Wang P,Lv K.Rational design of a gel-polymer-inorganic separator with uniform lithium-ion deposition for highly stable lithium-sulfur batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2019;11:35788-95

[39] Bharti VK,Sharma CS.Flexible and free-standing bacterial cellulose derived cathode host and separator for lithium-sulfur batteries.Carbohydr Polym2022;293:119731

[40] Zhang J,Xia Q.Confining polymer electrolyte in MOF for safe and high-performance all-solid-state sodium metal batteries.Angew Chem Int Ed2024;63:e202318822

[41] Yang K,Qi H,Cui Y.Developing a MXene quantum dot-based separator for Li-S batteries.J Mater Chem A2023;11:10425-34

[42] Wang Y,Mao P.A Keggin Al₁₃-montmorillonite modified separator retards the polysulfide shuttling and accelerates Li-ion transfer in Li-S batteries.Small2024;20:e2304898

[43] Kang X,Zou R.Size effect for inhibiting polysulfides shuttle in lithium-sulfur batteries.Small2024;20:e2306503

[44] Razaq R,Småbråten DR.Synergistic effect of bimetallic MOF modified separator for long cycle life lithium-sulfur batteries.Adv Energy Mater2024;14:2302897

[45] Li Z,Tang L.High areal loading and long-life cycle stability of lithium-sulfur batteries achieved by a dual-function ZnS-modified separator.Chem Eng J2020;390:124653

[46] Feng S,Wen J.Improvement of redox kinetics of dendrite-free lithium-sulfur battery by bidirectional catalysis of cationic dual-active sites.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2023;11:8544-55

[47] He J,Manthiram A.Molybdenum boride as an efficient catalyst for polysulfide redox to enable high-energy-density lithium-sulfur batteries.Adv Mater2020;32:e2004741

[48] Zhang Z,Xiong D.Improving sulfur transformation of lean electrolyte lithium-sulfur battery using nickel nanoparticles encapsulated in N-doped carbon nanotubes.Electron2024;2:e19

[49] Nitou MVM,Wan Z.LiFePO₄ as a dual-functional coating for separators in lithium-ion batteries: a new strategy for improving capacity and safety.J Energy Chem2023;86:490-8

[50] Hou Q,Jiang H.Scalable, flexible and fire-retardant Janus membranes for simultaneously inhibiting dendrite growth and catalyzing polysulfide conversion in lithium-sulfur batteries.Energy Storage Mater2023;60:102807

[51] Shrshr AE,Al-Tahan MA.Modified separator engineering with 2D ultrathin Ni₃B@rGO: extraordinary electrochemical performance of the lithium-sulfur battery with enormous-sulfur-content cathode in low electrolyte/sulfur ratio.J Alloys Compd2022;910:164917

[52] Cao Y,Li G.Ion selective covalent organic framework enabling enhanced electrochemical performance of lithium-sulfur batteries.Nano Lett2021;21:2997-3006

[53] Huang Y,Fu Y.A thermoregulating separator based on black phosphorus/MOFs heterostructure for thermo-stable lithium-sulfur batteries.Chem Eng J2023;454:140250

[54] Zhang B,Liu X.Watermelon flesh-like Ni₃S₂@C composite separator with polysulfide shuttle inhibition for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.Small2023;19:e2300687

[55] Chen L,Li W,Liu Y.Interlayer design based on carbon materials for lithium-sulfur batteries: a review.J Mater Chem A2020;8:10709-35

[56] Liu N,Wang W.Modified separator using thin carbon layer obtained from its cathode for advanced lithium sulfur batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2016;8:16101-7

[57] Li B,Zhao Y.Functional separator for Li/S batteries based on boron-doped graphene and activated carbon.J Nanopart Res2019;21:4451

[58] Zeng P,Zhang X,Wu L.Long-life and high-areal-capacity lithium-sulfur batteries realized by a honeycomb-like N, P dual-doped carbon modified separator.Chem Eng J2018;349:327-37

[59] Li Q,Yang L.N, O co-doped chlorella-based biomass carbon modified separator for lithium-sulfur battery with high capacity and long cycle performance.J Colloid Interface Sci2021;585:43-50

[60] Ma Z,Fan Y,Zhao Y.High electrical conductivity of 3D mesporous carbon nanocage as an efficient polysulfide buffer layer for high sulfur utilization in lithium-sulfur batteries.J Alloys Compd2019;789:71-9

[61] Saroha R,Li X.Asymmetric separator integrated with ferroelectric-BaTiO₃ and mesoporous-CNT for the reutilization of soluble polysulfide in lithium-sulfur batteries.J Alloys Compd2022;893:162272

[62] Jiang Y,Gao Y.Inhibiting the shuttle effect of Li-S battery with a graphene oxide coating separator: performance improvement and mechanism study.J Power Sources2017;342:929-38

[63] Lin W,Li P.Enhanced performance of lithium sulfur battery with a reduced graphene oxide coating separator.J Electrochem Soc2015;162:A1624-9

[64] Lei T,Lv W.Inhibiting polysulfide shuttling with a graphene composite separator for highly robust lithium-sulfur batteries.Joule2018;2:2091-104

[65] Bai S,Zhu K,Zhou H.Metal-organic framework-based separator for lithium-sulfur batteries.Nat Energy2016;1:16094

[66] Hall EA,Wang MH.Lewis acid activation of a hydrogen bond donor metal-organic framework for catalysis.ACS Catal2016;6:3248-52

[67] Zhang Y,Xiao J.Introduced hierarchically ordered porous architecture on a separator as an efficient polysulfide trap toward high-mass-loading Li-S batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2024;16:3888-900

[68] Yu X,Koo JH.Tailoring the pore size of a polypropylene separator with a polymer having intrinsic nanoporosity for suppressing the polysulfide shuttle in lithium-sulfur batteries.Adv Energy Mater2020;10:1902872

[69] Sun S,Hou J.Single-walled carbon nanotube gutter layer supported ultrathin zwitterionic microporous polymer membrane for high-performance lithium-sulfur battery.J Colloid Interface Sci2022;628:1012-22

[70] Tao X,Liu C.Balancing surface adsorption and diffusion of lithium-polysulfides on nonconductive oxides for lithium-sulfur battery design.Nat Commun2016;7:11203 PMCID:PMC4822044

[71] Yang Y,Cao Z.Thermally conductive separator with hierarchical nano/microstructures for improving thermal management of batteries.Nano Energy2016;22:301-9

[72] Lin Z,Lei Y.Enhanced Li-S battery performance boosted by a large surface area mesoporous alumina-based interlayer.ACS Appl Energy Mater2022;5:15615-23

[73] Zhang YC,Han C.Ultrathin MgB₂ nanosheet-modified polypropylene separator for high-efficiency lithium-sulfur batteries.J Colloid Interface Sci2024;653:664-72

[74] Wu T,Zhang J.CoB and BN composites enabling integrated adsorption/catalysis to polysulfides for inhibiting shuttle-effect in Li-S batteries.J Energy Chem2021;59:220-8

[75] Liang Q,Yao Y,Song H.Transition metal compounds family for Li-S batteries: the DFT-guide for suppressing polysulfides shuttle.Adv Funct Mater2023;33:2300825

[76] Huang Y,Zhang Y.Dual-functional lithiophilic/sulfiphilic binary-metal selenide quantum dots toward high-performance Li-S full batteries.Nanomicro Lett2023;15:67 PMCID:PMC10014643

[77] Sun L,Fu J.Highly active rare earth sulfur oxides used for membrane modification of lithium sulfur batteries.Chem Eng J2023;457:141240

[78] Zuo Y,Tang X.MnO₂ supported on acrylic cloth as functional separator for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.J Power Sources2020;464:228181

[79] Zhu W,Wei J.A synergistic modification of polypropylene separator toward stable lithium-sulfur battery.J Membr Sci2020;597:117646

[80] Zhu H,Xiong J.MOF derived cobalt-nickel bimetallic phosphide (CoNiP) modified separator to enhance the polysulfide adsorption-catalysis for superior lithium-sulfur batteries.J Colloid Interface Sci2023;641:942-9

[81] He J,Manthiram A.Vertical Co₉S₈ hollow nanowall arrays grown on a Celgard separator as a multifunctional polysulfide barrier for high-performance Li-S batteries.Energy Environ Sci2018;11:2560-8

[82] Ghazi ZA,Khattak AM.MoS₂/celgard separator as efficient polysulfide barrier for long-life lithium-sulfur batteries.Adv Mater2017;29:1606817

[83] Fan B,Wei Q,Zhou B.Anchoring and catalyzing polysulfides by rGO/MoS₂/C modified separator in lithium-sulfur batteries.Carbon2023;214:118361

[84] Zhou X,Huang X,Wang B.Interface engineering of Fe₃Se₄/FeSe heterostructures encapsulated in MXene for boosting LiPS conversion and inhibiting shuttle effect.Chem Eng J2023;457:141139

[85] Wang M,Sun Y.A universal graphene-selenide heterostructured reservoir with elevated polysulfide evolution efficiency for pragmatic lithium-sulfur battery.Adv Funct Mater2023;33:2211978

[86] Zhang J,Chen H.MoP quantum dot-modified N,P-carbon nanotubes as a multifunctional separator coating for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:16289-99

[87] Qiu W,Yan Y.Suppressed polysulfide shuttling and improved Li⁺ transport in Li S batteries enabled by NbN modified PP separator.J Power Sources2019;423:98-105

[88] Zhang J,Zhou Z,Tang Y.Mo₂C-loaded porous carbon nanosheets as a multifunctional separator coating for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.Materials2023;16:1635 PMCID:PMC9964068

[89] Pan H,Zhou H.Fe₃C-N-doped carbon modified separator for high performance lithium-sulfur batteries.J Energy Chem2019;39:101-8

[90] Ma F,Zhang X.WN_0.67-embedded N-doped graphene-nanosheet Interlayer as efficient polysulfide catalyst and absorbant for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.Chem Eng J2022;431:133439

[91] Ma F.Mo₂N quantum dots decorating N-doped carbon nanosheets for kinetics-enhanced Li-S batteries.Surf Interfaces2023;42:103521

[92] Li YX,Li LX,Cao FF.Green synthesis and applications of MXene for lithium-sulfur batteries.Energy Storage Mater2024;67:103257

[93] Li Y,Zhou C.Gradient sulfur fixing separator with catalytic ability for stable lithium sulfur battery.Chem Eng J2021;422:130107

[94] Guan B,Fan L.Blocking polysulfide with Co₂B@CNT via “synergetic adsorptive effect” toward ultrahigh-rate capability and robust lithium-sulfur battery.ACS Nano2019;13:6742-50

[95] Jin L,Shen C.Metallically conductive TiB₂ as a multi-functional separator modifier for improved lithium sulfur batteries.J Power Sources2020;448:227336

[96] Wang Y,Yuan J.Binary sulfiphilic nickel boride on boron-doped graphene with beneficial interfacial charge for accelerated Li-S dynamics.Small2023;19:e2208281

[97] Ponraj R,Ahn JH.Effective trapping of lithium polysulfides using a functionalized carbon nanotube-coated separator for lithium-sulfur cells with enhanced cycling stability.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2017;9:38445-54

[98] Li H,Zhao M.Suppressed shuttle via inhibiting the formation of long-chain lithium polysulfides and functional separator for greatly improved lithium-organosulfur batteries performance.Adv Energy Mater2020;10:1902695

[99] Wu S,Nie X,Yu Y.Interfacial engineering of binder-free janus separator with ultra-thin multifunctional layer for simultaneous enhancement of both metallic Li anode and sulfur cathode.Small2022;18:e2202651

[100] Chang C,Wu Q.All-in-one Janus separator for lithium-sulfur batteries with lithium polysulfide and dendrite growth suppressed at temperature gradient effect.J Power Sources2022;550:232115

[101] Dang B,Luo Y,Li J.Bifunctional design of cerium-based metal-organic framework-808 membrane modified separator for polysulfide shuttling and dendrite growth inhibition in lithium-sulfur batteries.J Energy Storage2022;52:104981

[102] Chen X,Li J.Bifunctional separator with sandwich structure for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.J Colloid Interface Sci2020;559:13-20

[103] Xiang Y,Qiu W.Interfacing soluble polysulfides with a SnO₂ functionalized separator: an efficient approach for improving performance of Li-S battery.J Membr Sci2018;563:380-7

[104] Wang B,Fu Y.Anodized aluminum oxide separators with aligned channels for high-performance Li-S batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:5831-7

[105] Liu J,Hong Z.Interfacial polymerization achieved integration of pore size adjustment, electrostatic repulsion and physical adsorption into one to inhibit polysulfide shuttle for enhanced lithium-sulfur battery.J Power Sources2024;594:233975

[106] Wu J,Li X.Ultralight layer-by-layer self-assembled MoS₂-polymer modified separator for simultaneously trapping polysulfides and suppressing lithium dendrites.Adv Energy Mater2018;8:1802430

[107] Liu H,Wang Q,Wang H.Dual-functional cobalt phosphide nanoparticles for performance enhancement of lithium-sulfur battery.J Nanostruct Chem2024;14:281-92

[108] Li Y,Gu H,Long Z.Niobium boride/graphene directing high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries derived from favorable surface passivation.ACS Nano2024;18:8863-75

[109] Pu J,Tan Y,Xue P.Effect of heterostructure-modified separator in lithium-sulfur batteries.Small2023;19:e2303266

[110] Wang X,Liu Y.Porous and heterostructured molybdenum-based phosphide and oxide nanobelts assisted by the structural engineering to enhance polysulfide anchoring and conversion for lithium-sulfur batteries.Chem Eng J2022;450:138191

[111] Lv Y,Jin Q.VSe₂/V₂C heterocatalyst with built-in electric field for efficient lithium-sulfur batteries: Remedies polysulfide shuttle and conversion kinetics.J Energy Chem2024;89:397-409

[112] Liang Q,Lu X.High-entropy MXene as bifunctional mediator toward advanced Li-S full batteries.ACS Nano2024;18:2395-408

[113] Yao Y,Jia X.Freestanding sandwich-like hierarchically TiS₂-TiO₂/Mxene bi-functional interlayer for stable Li-S batteries.Carbon2022;188:533-42

[114] Ma F,Sriniva K.NbN nanodot decorated N-doped graphene as a multifunctional interlayer for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.J Mater Chem A2022;10:8578-90

[115] Ma F,Zhang X.Mo₂N quantum dots decorated N-doped graphene nanosheets as dual-functional interlayer for dendrite-free and shuttle-free lithium-sulfur batteries.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2206113

[116] Zhang J,Li X.High-performance MoS₂ quantum dots/graphene functionalized separator and its failure analysis under high sulfur loading.Chem Eng J2023;456:140972

[117] Ma F,Srinivas K.VN quantum dots anchored N-doped carbon nanosheets as bifunctional interlayer for high-performance lithium-metal and lithium-sulfur batteries.Chem Eng J2023;459:141526

[118] Zhang Y,Zhou J.Anisotropically hybridized porous crystalline Li-S battery separators.Small2023;19:e2206616

[119] Wu H,Gao X.All-in-one Janus covalent organic frameworks separator as fast Li nucleator and polysulfides catalyzer in lithium-sulfur batteries.J Colloid Interface Sci2024;662:138-48

[120] Wang Z,Deng C.2,5-Dimercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole/acetylene black@polypropylene separator for inhibiting the shuttle effect and electrocatalyzing electrode reactions in Li-S batteries.Chem Eng J2022;446:137153

[121] Li R,Wang X.Surface design for high ion flux separator in lithium-sulfur batteries.J Colloid Interface Sci2024;654:13-24

[122] Hwang JY,Shin S.Designing a high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries based on layered double hydroxides-carbon nanotubes composite cathode and a dual-functional graphene-polypropylene-Al₂O₃ separator.Adv Funct Mater2018;28:1704294

[123] Yu B,Mateti S.An ultra-long-life flexible lithium-sulfur battery with lithium cloth anode and polysulfone-functionalized separator.ACS Nano2021;15:1358-69

[124] Zhang J,Chen Z.Emerging applications of atomic layer deposition for lithium-sulfur and sodium-sulfur batteries.Energy Stor Mater2020;26:513-33

[125] Bauer I,Althues H.Shuttle suppression in room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries using ion selective polymer membranes.Chem Commun2014;50:3208-10

[126] Wang Y,Cheng H.Research progress toward room temperature sodium sulfur batteries: a review.Molecules2021;26:1535 PMCID:PMC7999928

[127] Yin C,Zhao D.Azo-branched covalent organic framework thin films as active separators for superior sodium-sulfur batteries.ACS Nano2022;16:14178-87

[128] Kumar Saroja AP, Xu Y. Carbon materials for Na-S and K-S batteries.Matter2022;5:808-36

[129] Dong C,Liu H.Inhibited shuttle effect by functional separator for room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries.J Mater Sci Technol2022;113:207-16

[130] Yang W,Zou R.Cellulose nanofiber-derived carbon aerogel for advanced room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries.Carbon Energy2023;5:e203

[131] Dong C,Jin B.Enabling high-performance room-temperature sodium/sulfur batteries with few-layer 2H-MoSe₂ embellished nitrogen-doped hollow carbon spheres as polysulfide barriers.J Mater Chem A2021;9:3451-63

[132] Zhang J,Wang J.The explicit multi-electron catalytic mechanism of heteropolyvanadotungstate dominating ultra-durable room-temperature Na-S batteries.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2400170

[133] Chen S,Li Y.Brain capillary-inspired self-assembled covalent organic framework membrane for sodium-sulfur battery separator.Adv Energy Mater2023;13:2204334

[134] Xu H,Xu X.A polysulfides-defensive, dendrite-suppressed, and flame-retardant separator with lean electrolyte for room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries.Adv Funct Mater2024;2403663

[135] Zhou D,Guo X.Polyolefin-based janus separator for rechargeable sodium batteries.Angew Chem Int Ed2020;59:16725-34

[136] Wang C,Cui J,Li J.Robust room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries enabled by a sandwich-structured MXene@C/polyolefin/MXene@C dual-functional separator.Small2022;18:e2106983

[137] Sun W,Zhou Y.Amorphous FeSnO_x nanosheets with hierarchical vacancies for room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries.Angew Chem Int Ed2024;63:e202404816

[138] Yu X.Performance enhancement and mechanistic studies of room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries with a carbon-coated functional Nafion separator and a Na₂S/activated carbon nanofiber cathode.Chem Mater2016;28:896-905

[139] Wang H,Li X.Designing dual-defending system based on catalytic and kinetic iron Pyrite@C hybrid fibers for long-life room-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries.Chem Eng J2021;420:129681

[140] Li H,Jin B,Liu HK.Mesoporous nitrogen-doped carbon nanospheres as sulfur matrix and a novel chelate-modified separator for high-performance room-temperature Na-S batteries.Small2020;16:e1907464

[141] Yu X.Ambient-temperature sodium-sulfur batteries with a sodiated Nafion membrane and a carbon nanofiber-activated carbon composite electrode.Adv Energy Mater2015;5:1500350

[142] Fang Y,Zhu K.Lithiophilic three-dimensional porous Ti₂C₃T_x-rGO membrane as a stable scaffold for safe alkali metal (Li or Na) anodes.ACS Nano2019;13:14319-28

[143] Chen Y,Zhao W.Precise solid-phase synthesis of CoFe@FeO_x nanoparticles for efficient polysulfide regulation in lithium/sodium-sulfur batteries.Nat Commun2023;14:7487 PMCID:PMC10657440

[144] Li C,Yu J.Three birds with one stone: multifunctional separators based on SnSe nanosheets enable high-performance Li-, Na- and K-sulfur batteries.Adv Energy Mater2024;14:2303551