Structures, performances and applications of green biomass derived carbon in lithium-ion batteries

Abstract

Most countries worldwide have committed to reaching carbon neutrality by the end of the century, with the aim to achieve Net Zero before 2060. To reduce the dependency of energy demands on fossil fuels, use of renewable energy and its gradual transition into the overall energy portfolio becomes increasingly critical. The solar and wind energy accounts for a major part of renewable energy. Considering unstable and noncontinuous production of electricity from these two sources, energy storage becomes essential. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become the most favorable choice of energy storage due to their good electrochemical performance (high capacity, low charge leakage and good cycle performance) and safety, in particular for portable (3C products, electric vehicles and drones) and stationary applications as well as for emergency electricity supply. However, the specific capacity of graphite, the most common commercial anode material, is reaching its theoretical limit, posing great challenges for improving the overall capacity of LIBs. It is therefore necessary to develop anode materials of higher capacity and better cycle performance. Biomass-derived carbon materials are ideal candidates for further enhancing the performance of LIBs due to their special microstructures, functional diversity and easy structure regulation. Most of these materials can reach capacities exceeding 500 mAh g^-1, even the best for more than 1,000 mAh g^-1 combined with other anode materials. This review provides an in-depth analysis of diverse carbon sources derived from biomass, categorized based on their distinct structural characteristics, with the focus on evaluating the current roles and bottlenecks of carbon as a component of the electrode materials used in LIBs. The failure mechanisms associated with biomass-derived carbon in LIBs are summarized, with potential solutions to these issues being proposed. The potential challenges and prospects for biomass-based LIBs are identified and thoroughly discussed. Overall, this review aims to serve as a resource for the strategic design and advancement of carbon-based materials, to achieve next-generation LIBs of superior performance.

Keywords

Lithium-ion batteries / biomass-derived carbon / microstructure / electrochemical performance / mechanisms

References

[1] Kong F,Wang X.How to understand carbon neutrality in the context of climate change? With special reference to China.Sustain Environ2022;8:2062824

[2] Song D.Research on legal promotion mechanism of biomass energy development under “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality” targets in China.Energies2023;16:4361

[3] Rabani I,Subalakshmi K,Bathula C.A facile mechanochemical preparation of Co₃O₄@g-C₃N₄ for application in supercapacitors and degradation of pollutants in water.J Hazard Mater2021;407:124360

[4] Shrestha A,Htike MM,Kakinaka M.Evolution of energy mix in emerging countries: modern renewable energy, traditional renewable energy, and non-renewable energy.Renew Energy2022;199:419-32

[5] Chang J,Wu CZ.A review on the energy production, consumption, and prospect of renewable energy in China.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2003;7:453-68

[6] Xie M,Duan X,Yang H.Review on Fe-based double perovskite cathode materials for solid oxide fuel cells.Energy Mater2024;4:400007

[7] Rawat S,Bhaskar T.Biomass derived functional carbon materials for supercapacitor applications.Chemosphere2022;286:131961

[8] Zhai M,Jiang Y.Biomass-derived carbon materials for vanadium redox flow battery: from structure to property.J Colloid Interface Sci2023;651:902-18

[9] Huang Y,Zhou S.Renewable waste biomass-derived carbon materials for energy storage.J Phys D Appl Phys2022;55:313002

[10] Zhu J,Chandrasekaran S.Biomass-derived carbons for sodium-ion batteries and sodium-ion capacitors.ChemSusChem2020;13:1275-95

[11] Ramalingam G,Gnanasekaran L,Hoang TKA.Biomass and waste derived silica, activated carbon and ammonia-based materials for energy-related applications - a review.Fuel2024;355:129490

[12] Brunerová A,Hasanudin U,Telaumbanua M.Sustainable management of coffee fruit waste biomass in ecological farming systems at West Lampung, Indonesia.IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci2019;345:012007

[13] Yang Y.Improvement of rural soil properties and states by biomass carbon under the concept of sustainability: a research progress.Front Chem2022;10:1078170 PMCID:PMC9745025

[14] Cabrera M,Agrela F.Eco-efficient cement-based materials using biomass bottom ash: a review.Appl Sci2020;10:8026

[15] Wang L,Yoo K,Ko TJ.Stretchable carbon nanotube dilatometer for in situ swelling detection of lithium-ion batteries.ACS Appl Energy Mater2020;3:3637-44

[16] Li ZM,Feng D.Research progress of cathode materials for lithium-ion battery.Acta Mater Compos Sin2022;39:513-27

[17] Chen Y,Zhao Y.A review of lithium-ion battery safety concerns: the issues, strategies, and testing standards.J Energy Chem2021;59:83-99

[18] Khan FMNU,Sayem ASM.Design and optimization of lithium-ion battery as an efficient energy storage device for electric vehicles: a comprehensive review.J Energy Storage2023;71:108033

[19] Zhang X,Luo L,Du Z.A review on thermal management of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles.Energy2022;238:121652

[20] Yan X,Huang X.Research progress of preparation and application of cathode material for lithium ion battery.New Chem Mater2019;47:22-5.Available from: https://www.hgxx.org/EN/abstract/abstract7362.shtml [Last accessed on 9 Oct 2024]

[21] PRC Notice Release. Notice of The State Council on the issuance of made in China 2025. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-05/19/content_9784.htm [Last accessed on 9 Oct 2024]

[22] Suo LM.The past, present and future of lithium ion batteries.Physics2020;49:17-23

[23] Martín MM.Chapter 8 - biomass. In: Industrial chemical process analysis and design. The Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2016. p. 405-47.

[24] Yan M,Wang L.Recent advances in biomass-derived carbon materials for sodium-ion energy storage devices.Nanomaterials2022;12:930 PMCID:PMC8949264

[25] Geng H,Qu L,Wu M.Structure design and composition engineering of carbon-based nanomaterials for lithium energy storage.Adv Energy Mater2020;10:1903030

[26] Gao Y,Huang K.Energy storage applications of biomass-derived carbon materials: batteries and supercapacitors.New J Chem2017;41:11456-70

[27] He H,Zhang P.Functional carbon from nature: biomass-derived carbon materials and the recent progress of their applications.Adv Sci2023;10:e2205557 PMCID:PMC10238227

[28] Jin H,Yuan Y,Lu J.Recent progress in biomass-derived electrode materials for high volumetric performance supercapacitors.Adv Energy Mater2018;8:1801007

[29] Zhang B,Balasubramanian R.Synthesis, formation mechanisms and applications of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials: a critical review.J Mater Chem A2021;9:24759-802

[30] Wan H.Nitrogen doped biomass-derived porous carbon as anode materials of lithium ion batteries.Solid State Ion2019;341:115030

[31] Li Y,Qi H,Li X.Formation mechanism and characterization of porous biomass carbon for excellent performance lithium-ion batteries.RSC Adv2018;8:12666-71 PMCID:PMC9079330

[32] Endo M,Nishimura K,Miyashita K.Recent development of carbon materials for Li ion batteries.Carbon2000;38:183-97

[33] Liu J,Wang S,Zhang J.A review of performance attenuation and mitigation strategies of lithium-ion batteries.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2107769

[34] Kotal M,Roy S.Cathode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries: recent progress and future prospects.J Energy Storage2022;47:103534

[35] Palluzzi M,Adenusi H,Passerini S.Ionic liquids and their derivatives for lithium batteries: role, design strategy, and perspectives.Energy Mater2023;3:300049

[36] Pan Z,Zeng Y,Pu X.Fluorine chemistry in lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries.Energy Mater2023;3:300054

[37] Wang C,Chang Z,Liu Z.Progress in structure design and preparation of porous electrodes for lithium ion batteries.J Mater Eng2022;50:67-79

[38] Chen Z,Jansen AN,Weng W.New class of nonaqueous electrolytes for long-life and safe lithium-ion batteries.Nat Commun2013;4:1513

[39] Yue Y,Bi Z.A POM-organic framework anode for Li-ion battery.J Mater Chem A2015;3:22989-95

[40] Kim HJ,Zeb K.A comprehensive review of Li-ion battery materials and their recycling techniques.Electronics2020;9:1161

[41] Chen Z,Yang Z.A review on cathode materials for advanced lithium ion batteries: microstructure designs and performance regulations.Nanotechnology2020;31:012001

[42] Zou Z,Li S.A review of the preparation and performance improvement of V₆O₁₃ as a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries.Mater Technol2020;35:300-15

[43] Yang Z,Wei Z.Multi-dimensional correlation of layered Li-rich Mn-based cathode materials.Energy Mater2022;2:200006

[44] Akhilash M,John B.A journey through layered cathode materials for lithium ion cells - from lithium cobalt oxide to lithium-rich transition metal oxides.J Alloy Compd2021;869:159239

[45] Yang S,Wei H.Li₄V₂Mn(PO₄)₄-stablized Li[Li_0.2Mn_0.54Ni_0.13Co_0.13]O₂ cathode materials for lithium ion batteries.Nano Energy2019;63:103889

[46] Yu Z,Cheng Y.Enabling 4.6 V LiNi_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2O₂ cathodes with excellent structural stability: combining surface LiLaO₂ self-assembly and subsurface La-pillar engineering.Energy Mater2022;2:200037

[47] Manthiram A.A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry.Nat Commun2020;11:1550 PMCID:PMC7096394

[48] Kim HS,Kim K,Gu HB.Effect of carbon coating on LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂ cathode material for lithium secondary batteries.J Power Sources2007;171:917-21

[49] Zhang H,Zhao L.Synthesis and electrochemical performance of spinel LiMn₂O₄ modified by CNTs.Adv Mat Res2013;734-7:2523-7

[50] Luo W,Luo H.Carbon nanotube-modified LiFePO₄ for high rate lithium ion batteries.New Carbon Mater2014;29:287-94

[51] Yang H,Hu G,Cao Y.Design and synthesis of double-functional polymer composite layer coating to enhance the electrochemical performance of the Ni-rich cathode at the upper cutoff voltage.ACS Appl Mater Inter2019;11:8556-66

[52] Insinna T,Märker K,Barra AL.Graphite anodes for Li-ion batteries: an electron paramagnetic resonance investigation.Chem Mater2023;35:5497-511 PMCID:PMC10373490

[53] Hamidi S,Salimi P.Thermally expanded graphite: a promising anode electrode in the current and next-generation LIBs.New J Chem2023;47:12085-8

[54] Fischer S,Müller J,Kwade A.Impact of spheroidization of natural graphite on fast-charging capability of anodes for LIB.Batteries2023;9:305

[55] Zhang H,Ren D,He X.Graphite as anode materials: fundamental mechanism, recent progress and advances.Energy Storage Mater2021;36:147-70

[56] Xie C,Shang J.Hybrid lithium-ion/metal electrodes enable long cycle stability and high energy density of flexible batteries.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2203242

[57] Chen W.A review of materials and their future development trends for lithium ion battery anodes.IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci2020;546:022026

[58] Ding F,Choi D.Enhanced performance of graphite anode materials by AlF₃ coating for lithium-ion batteries.J Mater Chem2012;22:12745-51

[59] Lee GH,Choi JI,Kim YH.Ultrafast discharge/charge rate and robust cycle life for high-performance energy storage using ultrafine nanocrystals on the binder-free porous graphene foam.Adv Funct Mater2016;26:5139-48

[60] Bi J,Sun J.On the road to the frontiers of lithium-ion batteries: a review and outlook of graphene anodes.Adv Mater2023;35:e2210734

[61] Feng K,Liu W.Silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion batteries: from fundamentals to practical applications.Small2018;14:1702737

[62] Liu X,Chang B.Recent progress on germanium-based anodes for lithium ion batteries: efficient lithiation strategies and mechanisms.Energy Storage Mater2020;30:146-69

[63] Chang H,Han X.Recent developments in advanced anode materials for lithium-ion batteries.Energy Mater2021;1:100003

[64] Zhang W.A review of the electrochemical performance of alloy anodes for lithium-ion batteries.J Power Sources2011;196:13-24

[65] Pavlovskii AA,Kosenko A,Popovich AA.Organic anode materials for lithium-ion batteries: recent progress and challenges.Materials2022;16:177 PMCID:PMC9822040

[66] Nzereogu PU,Ezema FI,Nwanya AC.Anode materials for lithium-ion batteries: a review.Appl Surf Sci Adv2022;9:100233

[67] Sharma SK,Gaur A.Progress in electrode and electrolyte materials: path to all-solid-state Li-ion batteries.Energy Adv2022;1:457-510

[68] Zhang L,Wu HB,Lou XW.Hierarchical tubular structures constructed by carbon-coated SnO₂ nanoplates for highly reversible lithium storage.Adv Mater2013;25:2589-93

[69] Liu N,Zhao J.A pomegranate-inspired nanoscale design for large-volume-change lithium battery anodes.Nat Nanotechnol2014;9:187-92

[70] Suarso E,Subhan A.Enhancement of LiFePO₄ (LFP) electrochemical performance through the insertion of coconut shell-derived rGO-like carbon as cathode of Li-ion battery.J Mater Sci Mater Electron2021;32:28297-306

[71] Zhang C,Liu A.The bead-like Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃/NC nanofibers based on the nanocellulose from waste reed for long-life Li-ion batteries.Carbohydr Polym2020;237:116134

[72] Huang W,Cui H,Liu Y.Cost-effective biomass carbon/calix[4]quinone composites for lithium ion batteries.Chem Asian J2019;14:4164-8

[73] Xu X,Zhu X,Han W.Biomass carbon composited FeS₂ as cathode materials for high-rate rechargeable lithium-ion battery.J Power Sources2018;380:12-7

[74] Guo H,He W.Fabricating three-dimensional mesoporous carbon network-coated LiFePO₄/Fe nanospheres using thermal conversion of alginate-biomass.RSC Adv2016;6:16933-40

[75] Wu Z,Chou S.Novel biomass-derived hollow carbons as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries.Chem Res Chin Univ2023;39:283-9

[76] Zhu L,Lin X,Hu C.In-situ growing nanowires on biomass corn pods as free-standing electrodes with low surface reaction barrier for Li-, Al-, and Na-ion batteries.Appl Surf Sci2023;608:155223

[77] Huang G,Yao W.Poly tannic acid carbon rods as anode materials for high performance lithium and sodium ion batteries.J Colloid Interface Sci2023;629:832-45

[78] Zheng S,Zhang K,Hu G.Nitrogen and phosphorus co-doped mesoporous carbon nanosheets derived from bagasse for lithium-ion batteries.Mater Lett2021;290:129459

[79] Yu J,Cheng F.Exploring spent biomass-derived adsorbents as anodes for lithium ion batteries.Mater Today Energy2021;19:100580

[80] Panda MR,Modak B,Dutta DP.Electrochemical properties of biomass-derived carbon and its composite along with Na₂Ti₃O₇ as potential high-performance anodes for Na-ion and Li-ion batteries.Electrochim Acta2021;392:139026

[81] Zhang Y,Wang Q.A wax gourd flesh-derived porous carbon activated by different activating agents as lithium ion battery anode material.J Mater Sci Mater Electron2021;32:23776-85

[82] Bakierska M,Pacek J.Bio-derived carbon nanostructures for high-performance lithium-ion batteries.Carbon2019;145:426-32

[83] Zhu J,Liu Y.Graphitic, porous, and multiheteroatom codoped carbon microtubes made from hair waste: a superb and sustained anode substitute for Li-ion batteries.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2018;6:13662-9

[84] Zhang D,Xu L.Defect-rich N-doped porous carbon derived from soybean for high rate lithium-ion batteries.Appl Surf Sci2018;451:298-305

[85] Salimi P,Norouzi O.Turning an environmental problem into an opportunity: potential use of biochar derived from a harmful marine biomass named Cladophora glomerata as anode electrode for Li-ion batteries.Environ Sci Pollut Res Int2017;24:27974-84

[86] Lim DG,Razdan M,Osswald S.Lithium storage in structurally tunable carbon anode derived from sustainable source.Carbon2017;121:134-42

[87] Mondal AK,Zhao Y,Fan H.Naturally nitrogen doped porous carbon derived from waste shrimp shells for high-performance lithium ion batteries and supercapacitors.Micropor Mesopor Mater2017;246:72-80

[88] Gaddam RR,Narayan R,Kumar NA.Biomass derived carbon nanoparticle as anodes for high performance sodium and lithium ion batteries.Nano Energy2016;26:346-52

[89] Ru H,Zhou W,Zhao XS.Bean-dreg-derived carbon materials used as superior anode material for lithium-ion batteries.Electrochim Acta2016;222:551-60

[90] Han SW,Jeong JH.Effect of pyrolysis temperature on carbon obtained from green tea biomass for superior lithium ion battery anodes.Chem Eng J2014;254:597-604

[91] Song H,Shen W.Preparation and applications of biomass porous carbon.Sci Adv Mater2015;7:2257-71

[92] Sun Y,Yang Y.Biomass-derived carbon for high-performance batteries: from structure to properties.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2201584

[93] Zhang G,Wang L.Recent advances of biomass derived carbon-based materials for efficient electrochemical energy devices.J Mater Chem A2022;10:9277-307

[94] Jiang L,Fan Z.Biomass-derived carbon materials with structural diversities and their applications in energy storage.Sci China Mater2018;61:133-58

[95] Benítez A,Chien YC,Morales J.Recent advances in lithium-sulfur batteries using biomass-derived carbons as sulfur host.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2022;154:111783

[96] Pillai MM, Kalidas N, Zhao X, Lehto VP. Biomass-based silicon and carbon for lithium-ion battery anodes.Front Chem2022;10:882081 PMCID:PMC9114676

[97] Huang B,Xie Z.Two dimensional nanocarbons from biomass and biological molecules: synthetic strategies and energy related applications.J Energy Chem2021;54:795-814

[98] Xiang J,Mu C,Wang B.Activated hard carbon from orange peel for lithium/sodium ion battery anode with long cycle life.J Alloy Compd2017;701:870-4

[99] Li J,Luo Y.Nitrogen doping of porous carbon electrodes derived from pine nut shell for high-performance supercapacitors.Int J Electrochem Sci2020;15:6041-51

[100] Campbell B,Favors Z,Ozkan M.Bio-derived, binderless, hierarchically porous carbon anodes for Li-ion batteries.Sci Rep2015;5:14575 PMCID:PMC4586494

[101] Choi C,Kim BK.Enhanced lithium storage in hierarchically porous carbon derived from waste tea leaves.Sci Rep2016;6:39099 PMCID:PMC5155420

[102] Chen C,Meng Z,Liu P.Multi-heteroatom doped porous carbon derived from insect feces for capacitance-enhanced sodium-ion storage.J Energy Chem2021;54:482-92

[103] Bi Z,Cao Y.Biomass-derived porous carbon materials with different dimensions for supercapacitor electrodes: a review.J Mater Chem A2019;7:16028-45

[104] Qiang L,Li Z.Hierarchical porous biomass carbon derived from cypress coats for high energy supercapacitors.J Mater Sci Mater Electron2019;30:7324-36

[105] Gong Y,Luo C,Pan C.Highly porous graphitic biomass carbon as advanced electrode materials for supercapacitors.Green Chem2017;19:4132-40

[106] Noerochim L,Susanti D.Effect of carbon coating on the electrochemical performance of LiFePO₄/C as cathode materials for aqueous electrolyte lithium-ion battery.Ionics2016;22:341-6

[107] Zhang Q,Gong S,Zhang N.Iron fluoride nanoparticles embedded in a nitrogen and oxygen dual-doped 3D porous carbon derived from nori for high rate cathode in lithium-ion battery.ChemistrySelect2019;4:10334-9

[108] Ou J,Zhang Z.Chrysanthemum derived hierarchically porous nitrogen-doped carbon as high performance anode material for Lithium/Sodium ion batteries.Powder Technol2019;344:89-95

[109] Xu G,Ding B.Biomass-derived porous carbon materials with sulfur and nitrogen dual-doping for energy storage.Green Chem2015;17:1668-74

[110] Zheng F,Xia G.Biomass waste inspired nitrogen-doped porous carbon materials as high-performance anode for lithium-ion batteries.J Alloy Compd2017;693:1197-204

[111] Yan Z,Wang Q.Nitrogen doped porous carbon as excellent dual anodes for Li- and Na-ion batteries.Chin Chem Lett2020;31:583-8

[112] Zhang X,Chen X.Microtubular carbon fibers derived from bamboo and wood as sustainable anodes for lithium and sodium ion batteries.J Porous Mater2019;26:1821-30

[113] Tang J,Pol VG.Wild fungus derived carbon fibers and hybrids as anodes for lithium-ion batteries.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2016;4:2624-31

[114] Lv C,Umar A.Architecture-controlled synthesis of M_xO_y (M = Ni, Fe, Cu) microfibres from seaweed biomass for high-performance lithium ion battery anodes.J Mater Chem A2015;3:22708-15

[115] Kim K,Kim PJ.Li-ion storage in an amorphous, solid, spheroidal carbon anode produced by dry-autoclaving of coffee oil.Carbon2018;133:62-8

[116] Song M,Cheng J.Insights into the thermochemical evolution of maleic anhydride-initiated esterified starch to construct hard carbon microspheres for lithium-ion batteries.J Energy Chem2022;66:448-58

[117] Shi L,Chen G,Chen X.Fabrication of hierarchical porous carbon microspheres using porous layered double oxide templates for high-performance lithium ion batteries.Carbon2017;123:186-92

[118] Chen M,Liu S.Micro-sized porous carbon spheres with ultra-high rate capability for lithium storage.Nanoscale2015;7:1791-5

[119] Ming J,Liang G,Zhao F.Sodium salt effect on hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: a catalyst for carbon-based nanostructured materials for lithium-ion battery applications.Green Chem2013;15:2722-6

[120] Zhou X,Bai T.Interconnected highly graphitic carbon nanosheets derived from wheat stalk as high performance anode materials for lithium ion batteries.Green Chem2016;18:2078-88

[121] Mondal AK,Zhao Y.Nitrogen-doped porous carbon nanosheets from eco-friendly eucalyptus leaves as high performance electrode materials for supercapacitors and lithium ion batteries.Chemistry2017;23:3683-90

[122] Gao F,Xiao N,Qiu J.Hierarchical porous carbon sheets derived from biomass containing an activation agent and in-built template for lithium ion batteries.Carbon2018;139:1085-92

[123] Xie L,Bi Z.Hard carbon anodes for next-generation Li-ion batteries: review and perspective.Adv Energy Mater2021;11:2101650

[124] Wang K,Wu H.A hybrid lithium storage mechanism of hard carbon enhances its performance as anodes for lithium-ion batteries.Carbon2021;178:443-50

[125] Adams RA,Pol VG.Carbon anodes for nonaqueous alkali metal-ion batteries and their thermal safety aspects.Adv Energy Mater2019;9:1900550

[126] Zhao L,Lai W.Hard carbon anodes: fundamental understanding and commercial perspectives for Na-ion batteries beyond Li-ion and K-ion counterparts.Adv Energy Mater2021;11:2002704

[127] Xie F,Guo Z.Hard carbons for sodium-ion batteries and beyond.Prog Energy2020;2:042002

[128] Stevens DA.High capacity anode materials for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries.J Electrochem Soc2000;147:1271

[129] Chen F,Bai T,Zhou X.Facile synthesis of few-layer graphene from biomass waste and its application in lithium ion batteries.J Electroanal Chem2016;768:18-26

[130] Yao YX,Zhang Q.Emerging interfacial chemistry of graphite anodes in lithium-ion batteries.Chem Commun2020;56:14570-84

[131] Saju SK,Xu J,Pramanik A.Hard carbon anode for lithium-, sodium-, and potassium-ion batteries: advancement and future perspective.Cell Rep Phys Sci2024;5:101851

[132] Tenhaeff WE,More K.Highly robust lithium ion battery anodes from lignin: an abundant, renewable, and low-cost material.Adv Funct Mater2014;24:86-94

[133] Wang C,Zhong GB.Water chestnut-based hard carbon prepared by hydrothermal-carbonization method as anode for lithium ion battery.Energy Storage Sci Technol2020;9:818-25

[134] Tian Y,Lin R,Song Y.Influencing factors and catalytic mechanism of catalytic effect in catalytic graphitization.Mater Sci2020;10:40-6

[135] Gomez-Martin A,Ruttert M.Iron-catalyzed graphitic carbon materials from biomass resources as anodes for lithium-ion batteries.ChemSusChem2018;11:2776-87

[136] Zhang X,Ji W.Fast and controllable prelithiation of hard carbon anodes for lithium-ion batteries.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:11589-99

[137] Holtstiege F,Nölle R,Placke T.Pre-lithiation strategies for rechargeable energy storage technologies: concepts, promises and challenges.Batteries2018;4:4

[138] Huang X,Chen M.Li₂C₂O₄ with 3D confinement as simultaneous sacrificial material and activation reagent of biomass-derived carbon for advanced lithium-ion capacitors.Mater Today Sustain2023;24:100567

[139] Drews M,Bauer M.Spruce hard carbon anodes for lithium-ion batteries.ChemElectroChem2021;8:4750-61

[140] Legesse M,Al-Dirini F.Tunable high workfunction contacts: doped graphene.Appl Surf Sci2020;509:144893

[141] Ren N,He X.High ICE hard carbon anodes for lithium-ion batteries enabled by a high work function.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:46813-20

[142] Jin C,Sheng O.Biomass-based materials for green lithium secondary batteries.Energy Environ Sci2021;14:1326-79