In the last two–three decades, glass facades have gained more popularity due to their highly impactful esthetic and sustainable applications. However, their constitutive glass components are rather vulnerable and require proper analysis strategies to design them efficiently in structural terms, especially against extreme loads, such as earthquakes. To save time and costs, numerical approaches and simulations represent a powerful and versatile technique that can be used to predict the seismic behavior of glass facades under several loading and boundary conditions. Besides that, the lack of specific guidelines to support the model assembly and calibration for these analyses makes these steps uncertain and rather challenging. Among other open issues, this study collects and revises a selection of literature studies that emphasized the use of numerical simulations for glass facades subjected to earthquakes. Attention is focused both on framed glass facades and frameless (point-fixed) solutions. From the literature analysis, several modeling strategies emerge. Most importantly, difficulties and uncertainties in modeling complex glass facades are pointed out, especially with regard to the geometrical and mechanical optimization and the introduction of robust simplification approaches. It is observed that secondary components, such as setting blocks or gaskets, are often disregarded, which can have major consequences for the structural analysis and detailing of seismic effects in glass components.
| [1] |
N. Cella and C. Bedon, “Numerical Modelling of Global/Local Mechanisms and Sensitivity Analysis for the Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Glass Curtain Walls,” Engineering Structures 319 (2024): 118859, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.118859.
|
| [2] |
National Research Council of Italy, Advisory Committee on Technical Recommendations for Construction, Guide for the Design, Construction and Control of Buildings With Structural Glass Elements (2013).
|
| [3] |
E. Inca, S. Jordão, C. Bedon, A. Mesquita, and C. Rebelo, “Numerical Analysis of Laminated Glass Panels With Articulared Bolted Point Fixings,” ce/papers 5, no. 2 (2022): 140–149, https://doi.org/10.1002/cepa.1709.
|
| [4] |
N. Cella and C. Bedon, “Numerical Seismic Fragility Analysis of Glass Curtain Walls: Gaps and Challenges in Modelling Optimization and Limit Performance Indicators,” Buildings 14, no. 12 (2024): 3863, https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14123863.
|
| [5] |
R. A. Behr, Architectural Glass to Resist Seismic and Extreme Climatic Events (Woodhead Publishing, 2009), https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845696856.
|
| [6] |
S. Taghavi and E. Miranda, Response Assessment of Nonstructural Building Elements (Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, 2003).
|
| [7] |
R. G. S. S. Perera, J. H. A. Ruwanmali, T. Thevega, J. A. S. C. Jayasinghe, C. S. Bandara, and A. J. Dammika, “Thermal Performance of Glass Facade Under Fire Loading: A Numerical Approach,” Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences 52, no. 2 (2024): 229–241, https://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v52i2.11732.
|
| [8] |
C. G. Galante, Investigating the Performance of Mechanically Ventilated Double-Skin Facades With Solar Control Devices in the Main Cavity (2026).
|
| [9] |
A. M. Memari, A. Shirazi, and P. A. Kremer, “Static Finite Element Analysis of Architectural Glass Curtain Walls Under In-Plane Loads and Corresponding Full-Scale Test,” Structural Engineering and Mechanics 25, no. 4 (2007): 365–382, https://doi.org/10.12989/sem.2007.25.4.365.
|
| [10] |
S. Sivanerupan, J. L. Wilson, E. F. Gad, and N. T. K. Lam, “Analytical Study of Point Fixed Glass Facxade Systems Under Monotonic In-Plane Loading,” Advances in Structural Engineering 19, no. 4 (2016), https://doi.org/10.1177/1369433216630192.
|
| [11] |
L. Casagrande, A. Bonati, A. Occhiuzzi, N. Caterino, and F. Auricchio, “Numerical Investigation on the Seismic Dissipation of Glazed Curtain Wall Equipped on High-Rise Buildings,” Engineering Structures 179 (2019): 225–245, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.10.086.
|
| [12] |
I. Eliana, J. Sandra, B. Chiara, M. Afonso, and R. Carlos, “Numerical Analysis of Bolted Point Fixed Laminated Glass Panels Subjected to Seismic Loads,” in ECCM 2022—Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Composite Materials: Composites Meet Sustainability (2022).
|
| [13] |
C. Aiello, N. Caterino, G. Maddaloni, A. Bonati, A. Franco, and A. Occhiuzzi, “Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Cyclic Response of a Glass Curtain Wall for Seismic Performance Assessment,” Construction and Building Materials 187 (2018): 596–609, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.237.
|
| [14] |
S. D'Amore, S. Bianchi, J. Ciurlanti, and S. Pampanin, “Seismic Assessment and Finite Element Modeling of Traditional vs Innovative Point Fixed Glass Facade Systems (PFGFs),” Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 21, no. 5 (2023): 2657–2689, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-023-01622-0.
|
| [15] |
C. P. Pantelides, K. Z. Truman, R. A. Behr, and A. Belarbi, “Development of a Loading History for Seismic Testing of Architectural Glass in a Shop-Front Wall System,” Engineering Structures 18, no. 12 (1996): 917–935, https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-0296(95)00224-3.
|
| [16] |
U. Galli, Seismic Behaviour of Curtain Wall Facades: a Comparison Between Experimental Mock-Up Test and Finite Element Method Analysis, MSc Thesis (Politecnico of Milano, 2010), https://hdl.handle.net/10589/52381.
|
| [17] |
M. Momeni and C. Bedon, “Review on Glass Curtain Walls Under Different Dynamic Mechanical Loads: Regulations, Experimental Methods and Numerical Tools,” in Facade Design (IntechOpen, 2024), https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113266.
|
| [18] |
E. Inca-Cabrera, S. Jordão, C. Rebelo, C. Bedon, A. Mesquita, and S. A. Hosseini, “Experimental and Numerical Investigation of In-Plane Cyclic Response of a Point-Fixed Glass Façade System for Seismic Performance Assessment,” Journal of Building Engineering 108 (2025): 112956, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112956.
|
| [19] |
N. Caterino, M. D. Zoppo, G. Maddaloni, A. Bonati, G. Cavanna, and A. Occhiuzzi, “Seismic Assessment and Finite Element Modelling of Glazed Curtain Walls,” Structural Engineering and Mechanics 61, no. 1 (2017): 77–90, https://doi.org/10.12989/sem.2017.61.1.077.
|
| [20] |
R. A. Behr and A. Belarbi, “Seismic Test Methods for Architectural Glazing Systems,” Earthquake Spectra 12, no. 1 (1996), https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1585871.
|
| [21] |
M. Bârnaure and M. Voiculescu, “The Seismic Behaviour of Curtain Walls: An Analysis Based on Numerical Modelling,” Mathematical Modelling in Civil Engineering 9, no. 4 (2013): 1–8, https://doi.org/10.2478/mmce-2013-0013.
|
| [22] |
J. Wilson, E. Gad, N. Lam, and S. Sivanerupan, Drift Performance of Façade Systems (2008), accessed August 18, 2025, https://figshare.swinburne.edu.au/articles/conference_contribution/Drift_performance_of_facade_systems/26224616?file=47531222.
|
| [23] |
A. M. Memari, A. Shirazi, P. A. Kremer, and R. A. Behr, “Development of Finite-Element Modeling Approach for Lateral Load Analysis of Dry-Glazed Curtain Walls,” Journal of Architectural Engineering 17, no. 1 (2011): 24–33, https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)ae.1943-5568.0000027.
|
| [24] |
C. Bedon and C. Amadio, “Numerical Assessment of Vibration Control Systems for Multi-Hazard Design and Mitigation of Glass Curtain Walls,” Journal of Building Engineering 15 (2018): 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2017.11.004.
|
| [25] |
L. Casagrande, A. Bonati, F. Auricchio, and A. Occhiuzzi, “Dissipating Effect of Glazed Curtain Wall Stick System Installed on High-Rise Mega-Braced Frame-Core Buildings Under Nonlinear Seismic Excitation,” in COMPDYN 2017—Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Computational Methods in Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (2017), 3711–3727, https://doi.org/10.7712/120117.5677.17166.
|
| [26] |
C. Bedon and C. Amadio, “Glass Facades Under Seismic Events and Explosions: A Novel Distributed-TMD Design Concept for Building Protection,” Glass Structures & Engineering 3, no. 2 (2018): 257–274, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40940-018-0058-9.
|
| [27] |
C. Bedon and C. Amadio, “Enhancement of the Seismic Performance of Multi-Storey Buildings by Means of Dissipative Glazing Curtain Walls,” Engineering Structures 152 (2017): 320–334, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.09.028.
|
| [28] |
N. Cella and C. Bedon, “Role of Secondary Components in the Numerical Analysis and In-Plane Seismic Performance Assessment of Glass Curtain Walls,” Vibroengineering Procedia, EXTRICA 50 (2023): 35–41, https://doi.org/10.21595/vp.2023.23453.
|
| [29] |
E. Gil and M. M. Flint, Computational Modeling of Glass Curtain Wall Systems to Support Fragility Curve Development (2019).
|
| [30] |
X. Ji, Y. Zhuang, W. Lim, and Z. Qu, “Seismic Behavior of a Fully Tempered Insulating Glass Curtain Wall System Under Various Loading Protocols,” Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 53, no. 1 (2024): 68–88, https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4017.
|
| [31] |
J. Bouwkamp, Behavior of Window Panels Under In-Plane Forces (University of California, 1960).
|
| [32] |
C. Eva and T. C. Hutchinson, “Experimental Evaluation of the In-Plane Seismic Behavior of Storefront Window Systems,” Earthquake Spectra 27, no. 4 (2011): 997–1021, https://doi.org/10.1193/1.3651407.
|
| [33] |
C. Aiello, “In-Plane Seismic Response of a Glazed Curtain Wall: Full-Scale Laboratory Test and Non-Linear Modelling,” in COMPDYN Proceedings (2019), https://doi.org/10.7712/120119.6918.19258.
|
| [34] |
H. Lee, M. Oh, J. Seo, and W. Kim, “Seismic and Energy Performance Evaluation of Large-Scale Curtain Walls Subjected to Displacement Control Fasteners,” Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 11, no. 15 (2021): 6725, https://doi.org/10.3390/app11156725.
|
| [35] |
D. Antolinc, R. Žarnic, F. Cepon, V. Rajcic, and M. Stepinac, “Laminated Glass Panels in Combination With Timber Frame as a Shear Wall in Earthquake Resistant Building Design,” in Challenging Glass 3: Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications of Glass, CGC 2012, eds. B. Louter and N. Veer (IOS Press, 2012), 623–631, https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-061-1-623.
|
| [36] |
V. Rajčić, C. Bedon, J. Barbalić, and N. Perković, “Numerical Analysis and Experimental Verification of the Thermal Performance of Hybrid Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT)-Glass Facade Elements,” Challenging Glass Conference Proceedings 7 (2020), https://doi.org/10.7480/cgc.7.4459.
|
| [37] |
P. J. S. Cruz, J. Pequeno, J-P. Lebet, and D. Mocibob, “Mechanical Modelling of In-Plane Loaded Glass Panes,” in Challenging Glass 2: Conference ong Architectural and Structural Applications of Glass (CGC, 2010), https://doi.org/10.7480/cgc.2.2419.
|
| [38] |
W. Hochhauser, A. Fadai, M. Rinnhofer, and W. Winter, “Timber-Glass Composites: Calculation and Sizing Concept,” in WCTE 2016—World Conference on Timber Engineering (2016).
|
| [39] |
B. Ber, M. Premrov, and A. Štrukelj, “Finite Element Analysis of Timber-Glass Walls,” Glass Structures & Engineering 1, no. 1 (2016): 19–37, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40940-016-0015-4.
|
| [40] |
M. Premrov, B. Ber, and A. Štrukelj, “Cyclic and Shaking-Table Tests of Timber–Glass Buildings,” International Journal of Computational Methods and Experimental Measurements 5, no. 6 (2017): 928–939, https://doi.org/10.2495/CMEM-V5-N6-928-939.
|
| [41] |
B. Ber, G. Finžgar, M. Premrov, and A. Štrukelj, “On Parameters Affecting the Racking Stiffness of Timber-Glass Walls,” Glass Structures and Engineering 4, no. 1 (2019): 69–82, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40940-018-0086-5.
|
| [42] |
M. Premrov and E. Kozem Šilih, “Numerical Analysis of the Racking Behaviour of Multi-Storey Timber-Framed Buildings Considering Load-Bearing Function of Double-Skin Façade Elements,” Sustainability (Switzerland) 15, no. 8 (2023): 6379, https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086379.
|
| [43] |
E. K. Šilih and M. Premrov, “Numerical Study of Racking Resistance of Timber-Made Double-Skin Façade Elements,” Advances in Production Engineering and Management 17, no. 2 (2022): 231–242, https://doi.org/10.14743/apem2022.2.433.
|
| [44] |
K. E. Šilih and M. Premrov, “Enhancing Racking Stiffness in Tall Timber Buildings Using Double-Skin Façades: A Numerical Investigation,” Advances in Production Engineering and Management 20, no. 1 (2025): 116–130, https://doi.org/10.14743/apem2025.1.531.
|
| [45] |
C. Bedon and C. Amadio, “Exploratory Finite-Element Investigation and Assessment of Standardized Design Buckling Criteria for Two-Side Linear Adhesively Supported Glass Panels Under In-Plane Shear Loads,” Engineering Structures 106 (2016): 273–287, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2015.10.033.
|
| [46] |
I. Maniatis and G. A. R. Parke, “Numerical and Experimental Investigations on the Stress Distribution of Bolted Glass Connections Under In-Plane Loads” (PhD diss., 2008).
|
| [47] |
Y. Wang, Q. Wang, J. Sun, L. He, and K. M. Liew, “Effects of Fixing Point Positions on Thermal Response of Four Point-Supported Glass Façades,” Construction and Building Materials 73 (2014): 235–246, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.085.
|
| [48] |
S. Sivagnanasundram, In-Plane Seismic Performance of Glass Façade Systems (2011).
|
| [49] |
J. L. Wilson, E. F. Gad, N. T. K. Lam, and S. Sivanerupan, In-Plane Drift Capacity of Point Fixed Glass Façade Systems (2010).
|
| [50] |
S. Sivanerupan, J. L. Wilson, E. F. Gad, and N. T. K. Lam, “In-Plane Drift Capacity of Contemporary Point Fixed Glass Facade Systems,” Journal of Architectural Engineering 20, no. 1 (2014), https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)ae.1943-5568.0000130.
|
| [51] |
S. Sivanerupan, J. L. Wilson, E. F. Gad, and N. T. K. Lam, “Drift Performance of Point Fixed Glass Façade Systems,” Advances in Structural Engineering 17, no. 10 (2014): 1481–1495, https://doi.org/10.1260/1369-4332.17.10.1481.
|
| [52] |
L. Martins, R. Delgado, R. Camposinhos, and T. Silva, “Seismic Behaviour of Point Supported Glass Panels,” in Challenging Glass 3: Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications of Glass, CGC 2012 (IOS Press, 2012), 281–292, https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-061-1-281.
|
| [53] |
E. Inca, C. Bedon, S. Jordão, and C. Rebelo, “Seismic Behaviour of Bolted and Bonded Point Fixed Laminated Glass Panels,” MATEC Web of Conferences 352 (2021): 00013, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202135200013.
|
| [54] |
S. D'Amore, J. C. Bianchi, and S. Pampanin, Seismic Performance of Point Fixed Glass Facade Systems Through Finite Element Modelling and Proposal of a Low-Damage Connection System (2022).
|
| [55] |
G. Sciacca, E. Katsanos, and J. H. Nielsen, “Damage Accumulation in Point Supported Glass Panels Subjected to Earthquake Excitations via a Simplified Stepwise Approach,” Glass Structures & Engineering 7, no. 4 (2022): 661–679, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40940-022-00215-8.
|
| [56] |
N. Breuil, H. Wu, and M. Mouazzam, “Seismic Performance Analysis of Horizontally Isolated Point-Fixed Glass Façade System Incorporated in Self-Centering Wall Structure,” Structures 80 (2025): 109983, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2025.109983.
|
| [57] |
E. Inca-Cabrera, S. Jordão, C. Rebelo, C. Bedon, A. Mesquita, and S.-A. Hosseini, “Experimental and Numerical Investigation of In-Plane Cyclic Response of a Point-Fixed Glass Façade System for Seismic Performance Assessment,” Journal of Building Engineering 108 (2025): 112956, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112956.
|
| [58] |
S. Bondi and N. McClelland, Capturing Structural Silicone Non-Linear Behavior via the Finite Element Method (Glass Performance Days, 2009), 183–185.
|
| [59] |
B. Dal Lago, F. Biondini, G. Toniolo, and M. Lamperti Tornaghi, “Experimental Investigation on the Influence of Silicone Sealant on the Seismic Behaviour of Precast Façades,” Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 15, no. 4 (2017): 1771–1787, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-016-0045-y.
|
RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS
2026 The Author(s). Earthquake Engineering and Resilience published by Tianjin University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
PDF
(5926KB)
