Understanding subjective well-being in urban emergencies: the role of time use and personality traits

Abstract

Urban emergencies significantly disrupt the subjective well-being (SWB) of urban population, while limited research has explored how time-use patterns interact with personality traits to shape SWB in crisis contexts. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for effective urban management and community resilience. This study investigates the influence of time use and personality profiles on SWB during urban emergencies, using data from the Shanghai lockdown. We identify three distinct personality profiles (i.e., Positive, Introverted, and Sensitive) and examine their heterogeneous responses. Our findings reveal that key quality-of-life factors, including health perception, social connection, and community liveability, directly influence SWB. Furthermore, time-use patterns, such as outdoor activities, paid work, sleep, online socialising, entertainment, and offline leisure, significantly affect residents’ life quality and SWB. In addition, personality traits moderate these effects: Positive individuals are particularly sensitive to sleep duration, while Sensitive individuals experience greater well-being variations due to outdoor activities. By revisiting the interactions between time use, personality traits, and SWB, our findings offer evidence-based guidance for policymakers and urban planners. This knowledge advances the understanding of psychological adaptation during urban emergencies and provides a foundation for more targeted approaches to community welfare, thereby strengthening community resilience during future crises.

Keywords

Big Five Model / Personality Traits / Activity Pattern / Subjective Well-Being (SWB)

References

[1] Adeagbo A, Daramola A, Carim-Sanni A, Akujobi C, Ukpong C. Effects of natural disasters on social and economic well being: A study in Nigeria. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016, 17: 1-12

[2] Afthanorhan, W., & Mohamad, W., Bin, A. (2008). A Comparison Of Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) and Covariance Based Structural Equation Modeling (CB-SEM) for Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Certified International Journal of Engineering Science and Innovative Technology (IJESIT), 9001(5), 2319–5967.

[3] Ahmed NO, El-Halafawy AM, Amin AM. A critical review of urban livability. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 2019, 8(1): 165-165

[4] Amichai-Hamburger Y, Schneider BH. Loneliness and internet use. The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone, 2013317334

[5] Anglim, J., & Horwood, S. (2021). Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and big five personality on subjective and psychological well-being. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(8), 1527–1537. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620983047

[6] Ashida R, Tzioutzios D, Cruz AM. The impact of subjective well-being on risk perception and disaster preparedness actions: A survey of the Kinki region, Japan, through structural equation modelling. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2024, 110: 104595

[7] Bidzan-Bluma I, Bidzan M, Jurek P, Bidzan L, Knietzsch J, Stueck M, Bidzan M. A Polish and German population study of quality of life, well-being, and life satisfaction in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2020, 11: 585813

[8] Buneviciene I, Bunevicius R, Bagdonas S, Bunevicius A. The impact of pre-existing conditions and perceived health status on mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Public Health, 2022, 44(1): e88-e95

[9] Cheah JH, Amaro S, Roldán JL. Multigroup analysis of more than two groups in PLS-SEM: A review, illustration, and recommendations. Journal of Business Research, 2023, 156: 113539

[10] Cicognani E, Pirini C, Keyes C, Joshanloo M, Rostami R, Nosratabadi M. Social participation, sense of community and social well being: A study on American, Italian and Iranian university students. Social Indicators Research, 2008, 89: 97-112

[11] Cobb-Clark DA, Schurer S. The stability of big-five personality traits. Economics Letters, 2012, 115(111-15

[12] Colucci E, Nadeau S, Higgins J, Kehayia E, Poldma T, Saj A, De Guise E. COVID-19 lockdowns’ effects on the quality of life, perceived health and well-being of healthy elderly individuals: A longitudinal comparison of pre-lockdown and lockdown states of well-being. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 2022, 99: 104606

[13] Correa T, Hinsley AW, de Zúñiga HG. Who interacts on the web?: The intersection of users’ personality and social media use. Computers in Human Behavior, 2010, 26(2): 247-253

[14] Dalmases M, Benítez I, Sapiña-Beltran E, Garcia-Codina O, Medina-Bustos A, Escarrabill J, Saltó E, Buysse DJ, Plana RE, Sánchez-de-la-Torre M. Impact of sleep health on self-perceived health status. Scientific Reports, 2019, 9(17284

[15] Dana A, Nodeh H, Mir M, Salehian H, Saei SM, Sarvari S. Smartphone usage status, sleep pattern, health-related quality of life, and physical activity among adolescents from before to during the COVID-19 confinement: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of School Health, 2022, 9(11-9

[16] Diener E. Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 1984, 95(3): 542

[17] Diener E, Ryan K. Subjective well-being: A general overview. South African Journal of Psychology, 2009, 39(4391-406

[18] Diener E, Lucas RE, Oishi S. Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life satisfaction. Handbook of Positive Psychology, 2002, 2: 63-73

[19] Diener E, Wirtz D, Biswas-Diener R, Tov W, Kim-Prieto C, Choi D, Oishi S. New measures of well-being. Social Indicators Research Series, 2009, 39: 247-266

[20] Disabato DJ, Goodman FR, Kashdan TB, Short JL, Jarden A. Different types of well-being? A cross-cultural examination of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Psychological Assessment, 2016, 28(5): 471

[21] Etxeberria I, Etxebarria I, Urdaneta E. Subjective well-being among the oldest old: The role of personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 2019, 146: 209-216

[22] Fornell C, Larcker DF. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 1981, 18(139

[23] Frank, L. D., & Engelke, P. O. (2001). The built environment and human activity patterns the built environment and human activity patterns: Exploring the impacts of urban form on public health. Journal of Planning Literature, 16(2).

[24] Gao Y, Rasouli S, Timmermans H, Wang Y. Understanding the relationship between travel satisfaction and subjective well-being considering the role of personality traits: A structural equation model. Transportation Research Part f: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 2017, 49: 110-123

[25] Giurge LM, Whillans AV, Yemiscigil A. A multicountry perspective on gender differences in time use during COVID-19. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2021, 118(12e2018494118

[26] Goldberg LR. The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 1993, 48(126

[27] Gosling E, Williams KJH. Connectedness to nature, place attachment and conservation behaviour: Testing connectedness theory among farmers. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2010, 30(3298-304

[28] Gosling, S. D., Sandy, C. J., & Potter, J. (2010). Personalities of Self-Identified “Dog People” and “Cat People” Anthrozoös, 23(3), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303710X12750451258850

[29] Haim-Litevsky D, Komemi R, Lipskaya-Velikovsky L. Sense of belonging, meaningful daily life participation, and well-being: Integrated investigation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2023, 20(5): 4121

[30] Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). PLS-SEM: indeed a silver bullet. 19(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679190202

[31] Hair JF, Risher JJ, Sarstedt M, Ringle CM. When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 2019, 31(12-24

[32] Haslam N, Whelan J, Bastian B. Big five traits mediate associations between values and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 2009, 46(1): 40-42

[33] Helliwell JF. How’s life? Combining individual and national variables to explain subjective well-being. Economic Modelling, 2003, 20(2): 331-360

[34] Higgins CD, Páez A, Kim G, Wang J. Changes in accessibility to emergency and community food services during COVID-19 and implications for low income populations in Hamilton, Ontario. Social Science & Medicine, 2021, 291: 114442

[35] Hills P, Argyle M. The Oxford happiness questionnaire: A compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 2002, 33(7): 1073-1082

[36] Hoang TTA, Knabe A. Time use, unemployment, and well-being: An empirical analysis using British time-use data. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2021, 22: 2525-2548

[37] Hommerich C. Trust and subjective well-being after the great east Japan earthquake, tsunami and nuclear meltdown: Preliminary results. International Journal of Japanese Sociology, 2012, 21(146-64

[38] Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424

[39] Hu Z, Lin X, Chiwanda Kaminga A, Xu H. Impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on lifestyle behaviors and their association with subjective well-being among the general population in mainland China: Cross-sectional study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 2020, 22(8): e21176

[40] Hunt E. Intelligence as an information-processing concept. British Journal of Psychology, 1980, 71(4449-474

[41] Jackowska, M., Brown, J., Ronaldson, A., & Steptoe, A. (2015). The impact of a brief gratitude intervention on subjective well-being, biology and sleep. 21(10), 2207–2217. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105315572455

[42] Kinderman P, Schwannauer M, Pontin E, Tai S. The development and validation of a general measure of well-being: The BBC well-being scale. Quality of Life Research, 2011, 20(7): 1035-1042

[43] Korman M, Tkachev V, Reis C, Komada Y, Kitamura S, Gubin D, Kumar V, Roenneberg T. Outdoor daylight exposure and longer sleep promote wellbeing under COVID-19 mandated restrictions. Journal of Sleep Research, 2022, 31(2): e13471

[44] Krendl AC, Perry BL. The impact of sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic on older adults’ social and mental well-being. The Journals of Gerontology. Series b, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 2021, 76(2e53-e58

[45] Krueger AB, Kahneman D, Fischler C, Schkade D, Schwarz N, Stone AA. Time use and subjective well-being in France and the US. Social Indicators Research, 2009, 93: 7-18

[46] Kuo T, Tang HL. Relationships among personality traits, Facebook usages, and leisure activities–A case of Taiwanese college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 2014, 31: 13-19

[47] Lai S, Lu L, Shen C, Yan A, Lei Y, Zhou Z, Wang Y. Income loss and subsequent poor psychological well-being among the Chinese population during the early COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal for Equity in Health, 2023, 22(1): 1-12

[48] Lee RM, Dean BL, Jung KR. Social connectedness, extraversion, and subjective well-being: Testing a mediation model. Personality and Individual Differences, 2008, 45(5): 414-419

[49] Leontitsis A, Pagge J. A simulation approach on Cronbach’s alpha statistical significance. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 2007, 73(5): 336-340

[50] Li X, Ren Z, Ji T, Shi H, Zhao H, He M, Fan X, Guo X, Zha S, Qiao S, Li Y, Pu Y, Liu H, Zhang X. Associations of sleep quality, anxiety symptoms and social support with subjective well-being among Chinese perimenopausal women. Journal of Affective Disorders, 2022, 302: 66-73

[51] Liu X, Wang QC, Jian IY, Chi HL, Yang D, Chan EHW. Are you an energy saver at home? The personality insights of household energy conservation behaviors based on theory of planned behavior. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2021, 174: 105823

[52] Liu, Y., Wang, Q.C., Zhang, K., Liu, Y., Wang, Q.C., & Zhang, K. (2025). Measuring urban–peripheral disparities in fresh food access: Spatial equity analysis of wet markets in Shanghai. Land, 14(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/LAND14112107

[53] Lu JG, Liu XL, Liao H, Wang L. Disentangling stereotypes from social reality: Astrological stereotypes and discrimination in China. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2020, 119(6): 1359-1379

[54] Lucas, R. E., & Diener, E. (2009). Personality and subjective well-being.

[55] Mansfield, L., Daykin, N., & Kay, T. (2020). Leisure and wellbeing. 39(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2020.1713195

[56] Marinucci M, Pancani L, Aureli N, Riva P. Online social connections as surrogates of face-to-face interactions: A longitudinal study under Covid-19 isolation. Computers in Human Behavior, 2022, 128: 107102

[57] Markhvida M, Walsh B, Hallegatte S, Baker J. Quantification of disaster impacts through household well-being losses. Nature Sustainability, 2020, 3(7538-547

[58] Moore S, Diener E. Types of subjective well-being and their associations with relationship outcomes. Journal of Positive Psychology and Wellbeing, 2019, 3(2112-118

[59] Möwisch, D., Brose, A., & Schmiedek, F. (2023). Active time use and well-being in older adulthood: Results from a day reconstruction method study. Work, Aging and Retirement.

[60] Olszewska-Guizzo A, Sia A, Fogel A, Ho R. Features of urban green spaces associated with positive emotions, mindfulness and relaxation. Scientific Reports, 2022, 12(1): 20695

[61] Patrick SW, Henkhaus LE, Zickafoose JS, Lovell K, Halvorson A, Loch S, Letterie M, Davis MM. Well-being of parents and children during the COVID-19 pandemic: A national survey. Pediatrics, 2020, 146(4e2020016824

[62] Philips, D. (2006). Quality of life: Concept, policy and practice - David Phillips - Google 圖書. https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=zh-TW&lr=&id=pqnB8nFaLpcC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&ots=q7Dyh3Nvt1&sig=Dd3jD_BoI1npe0-C5PiAAPXeDok&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

[63] Pinsent-Johnson, C., & Sturm, M. (2024). Adult education: the missing piece to bridging the digital divide. IRPP Insight No. 55. Montreal: Institute for Research on Public Policy.

[64] Poškus, M. S. (2017). Normative influence of pro-environmental intentions in adolescents with different personality types. Current Psychology, 1–14.

[65] Poškus MS, Žukauskienė R. Predicting adolescents’ recycling behavior among different big five personality types. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2017, 54: 57-64

[66] Prentice C, Zeidan S, Wang X. Personality, trait EI and coping with COVID 19 measures. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2020, 51: 101789

[67] Puechlong C, Weiss K, Le Vigouroux S, Charbonnier E. Role of personality traits and cognitive emotion regulation strategies in symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder among flood victims. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2020, 50: 101688

[68] Randler, C., Schredl, M., & Göritz, A. S. (2017). Chronotype, sleep behavior, and the big five personality factors. 7(3), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017728321

[69] Rantakokko M, Iwarsson S, Vahaluoto S, Portegijs E, Viljanen A, Rantanen T. Perceived environmental barriers to outdoor mobility and feelings of loneliness among community-dwelling older people. Journals of Gerontology Series a: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 2014, 69(121562-1568

[70] Ribeiro AI, Triguero-Mas M, Jardim Santos C, Gómez-Nieto A, Cole H, Anguelovski I, Silva FM, Baró F. Exposure to nature and mental health outcomes during COVID-19 lockdown. A comparison between Portugal and Spain. Environment International, 2021, 154: 106664

[71] Riva, P., & Eck, J. (2016). Social exclusion: Psychological approaches to understanding and reducing its impact. Social exclusion: Psychological approaches to understanding and reducing its impact (pp. 1–295). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4/COVER

[72] Ruth M, Franklin RS. Livability for all? Conceptual limits and practical implications. Applied Geography, 2014, 49: 18-23

[73] Ryan RM, Deci EL. On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 2001, 52(1141-166

[74] Ryan, R. M., & Martela, F. (2016). Eudaimonia as a way of living: Connecting Aristotle with self-determination theory. Handbook of Eudaimonic well-being, (pp. 109–122).

[75] Simon, J., Helter, T. M., White, R. G., Boor, C. van der, & Łaszewska, A. (2020). Capability impacts of the Covid-19 lockdown in association with mental well-being, social connections and existing vulnerabilities: an Austrian survey study. MedRxiv, 2020.11.14.20231142. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.11.14.20231142

[76] Song YJ, Lee YS. Work hours, work schedules, and subjective well-being in Korea. International Sociology, 2021, 36(1): 25-48

[77] Staller N, Randler C. Chronotype dependent choosiness and mate choice. Personality and Individual Differences, 2021, 168: 110375

[78] Steverink N, Lindenberg S. Which social needs are important for subjective well-being? What happens to them with aging?. Psychology and Aging, 2006, 21(2): 281

[79] St-Louis AC, Rapaport M, Chénard Poirier L, Vallerand RJ, Dandeneau S. On emotion regulation strategies and well-being: The role of passion. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2021, 22: 1791-1818

[80] Sweet M, Kanaroglou P. Gender differences: The role of travel and time use in subjective well-being. Transportation Research Part f: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 2016, 40: 23-34

[81] Szcześniak, M., & Tułecka, M. (2020). Family functioning and life satisfaction: The mediatory role of emotional intelligence. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 223–232.

[82] Tenenhaus, M., Vinzi, V., Chatelin, Y., & Lauro, C. (2005). PLS path modeling. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 48(1), 159–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSDA.2004.03.005

[83] Tennant R, Hiller L, Fishwick R, Platt S, Joseph S, Weich S, Parkinson J, Secker J, Stewart-Brown S. The warwick-dinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 2007, 5(11-13

[84] Thompson Coon J, Boddy K, Stein K, Whear R, Barton J, Depledge MH. Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 2011, 45(5): 1761-1772

[85] Thørrisen MM, Sadeghi T. The Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI): A scoping review of versions, translations and psychometric properties. Frontiers in Psychology, 2023, 14: 1202953

[86] Tsouros I, Tsirimpa A, Pagoni I, Polydoropoulou A. Activities, time-use and mental health during the first COVID-19 pandemic wave: Insight from Greece. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 2021, 11: 100442

[87] Twenge JM, Martin GN. Gender differences in associations between digital media use and psychological well-being: Evidence from three large datasets. Journal of Adolescence, 2020, 79(191-102

[88] Twenge JM, Blake AB, Haidt J, Campbell WK. Commentary: Screens, teens, and psychological well-being: Evidence from three time-use-diary studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 2020, 11: 181

[89] Wagner F, Caves RW. Community livability: Issues and approaches to sustaining the well-being of people and communities, 2012Routledge

[90] Wang QC, Ren YT, Liu X, Chang RD, Zuo J. Exploring the heterogeneity in drivers of energy-saving behaviours among hotel guests: Insights from the theory of planned behaviour and personality profiles. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 2023, 99: 107012

[91] Wang QC, Feng ZR, Liu X. Dynamic shifts in building energy demand: An activity-based analysis of post-COVID work and lifestyle changes. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2025, 3140(6062013

[92] Wang QC, He P, Li Y, Hou Y, Jian YI, Liu X. Towards a human-centric city emergency response: Modelling activity patterns of urban population. Developments in the Built Environment, 2025, 21: 100633

[93] Wang, Q. C., & Wan, L. (2025). Activity-based models for smart and sustainable urban environment. In Routledge Handbook of Smart Built Environment (1st ed., p. 23). Routledge.

[94] Whiting A, Williams D. Why people use social media: A uses and gratifications approach. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 2013, 16(4362-369

[95] Wray A, Martin G, Ostermeier E, Medeiros A, Little M, Reilly K, Gilliland J. Evidence synthesis - Physical activity and social connectedness interventions in outdoor spaces among children and youth: A rapid review. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada: Research, Policy and Practice, 2020, 40(4104

[96] Ye Y, Yu P, Zhang X. More trust in central government during the COVID-19 pandemic? Citizens’ emotional reactions, government performance, and trust in governments. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2024, 108: 104555

[97] Yildirim M, Belen H. The role of resilience in the relationships between externality of happiness and subjective well-being and flourishing: A structural equation model approach. Journal of Positive Psychology and Wellbeing, 2019, 3(162-76

[98] Zhao F, Cui Z, Zhao X, Liu W. Did COVID-19 affect rural households’ subjective well-being? A social survey from rural China. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2023, 92: 103736

[99] Zuzanek J, Zuzanek T. Of happiness and of despair, is there a measure? Time use and subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2015, 16: 839-856

Funding

City University of Hong Kong(9382011)

Faculty of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences, Education University of Hong Kong(0400I)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)