Wearable and Integrable Core-Spun Yarns for Moisture-Enabled Energy Harvesting and Self-Powered Intelligent Monitoring

Abstract

Human respiration, perspiration, and skin evaporation continuously release moisture, making humidity a promising self-sustainable energy source for wearable electronics. However, conventional film-type moisture-enabled electric generators suffer from limitations in flexibility and integration with wearable platforms. Here, we report an Ag polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofiber core-spun yarn (APNCY) with moisture-enabled electric generation fabricated via conjugate electrospinning, where a sandwich structure composed of a zinc core electrode, a PVA/LiCl nanofiber hygroscopic layer, and a sprayed silver shell enables efficient harvesting of ambient humidity. The LiCl concentration critically affects fiber morphology and moisture affinity, with the APNCY fabricated using 0.2 wt.% LiCl achieving optimal performance, delivering approximately 0.75 V and 0.034 mA at 95% RH while maintaining stable operation for over 10000 s. Benefiting from its yarn architecture, the device can readily interface with the human body for signal acquisition. Combined with deep learning algorithms and t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) feature space analysis, the device enables high-accuracy recognition of multiple breathing patterns and supports self-powered wireless abnormality warnings, demonstrating strong potential for smart textiles, passive physiological monitoring, and self-powered wearable healthcare applications.

Graphical Abstract

Keywords

Moisture-enabled electric generation / Electrospinning / Smart wearable devices / Self-powered sensing / Health monitoring

References

[1] Li L, Wang Y, Wang X, Lin R, Luo X, Liu Z, Zhou K, Xiong S, Bao Q, Chen G, Tian Y, Deng Y, Xiao K, Wu J, Saidaminov M, Lin H, Ma C, Zhao Z, Wu Y, Zhang L, Tan H. Flexible all-perovskite tandem solar cells approaching 25% efficiency with molecule-bridged hole-selective contact. Nat Energy. 2022, 7. 708

[2] Lu Y, Yang G, Wang S, Zhang Y, Jian Y, He L, Yu T, Luo H, Kong D, Xianyu Y, Liang B, Liu T, Ouyang X, Yu J, Hu X, Yang H, Gu Z, Huang W, Xu K. Stretchable graphene-hydrogel interfaces for wearable and implantable bioelectronics. Nat Electron. 2023, 751.

[3] Liu R, Wang Z, Fukuda K, Someya T. Flexible self-charging power sources. Nat Rev Mater. 2022, 7870.

[4] Zhu C, Wu J, Yan J, Liu X. Advanced fiber materials for wearable electronics. Adv Fiber Mater. 2023, 5. 12

[5] Cui Y, Chen Q, Bao W, Yao H, Huang Z, Ma R, Miao M, Sheng L, He X. Dual-catalytic polymerization of high-performance PEDOT thermoelectric fabrics for self-powered sensing. Chem Eng J. 2025, 523. 168819

[6] Qiao S, Shi Z, Tong A, Luo Y, Zhang Y, Wang M, Huang Z, Xu W, Chen F. Atomic layer deposition paves the way for next-generation smart and functional textiles. Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 2025, 341. 103500

[7] Li L, Liu W, Liu Q, Chen Z. Multifunctional wearable thermoelectrics for personal thermal management. Adv Funct Mater. 2022, 32. 2200548

[8] Liang Z, Deng Y, Shi Z, Liao X, Zong H, Ren L, Li X, Zeng X, Hu P, Ke W, Wu B, Wang K, Qian J, Xu W, Chen F. AI-driven design of powder-based nanomaterials for smart textiles: from data intelligence to system integration. Adv Powder Mater. 2026, 5. 100356

[9] He X, Shi X, Wu X, Li C, Liu W, Zhang H, Yu X, Wang L, Qin X, Chen Z. Three-dimensional flexible thermoelectric fabrics for smart wearables. Nat Commun. 2025, 16. 2523

[10] Kim G, Lee J, Zhao K, Kim T, Kim W, Oh J, Lee K, Jang J, Zan G, Park J, Lee S, Kim Y, Jiang W, Li S, Park C. A deformable complementary moisture and tribo energy harvester. Energy Environ Sci. 2024, 17134.

[11] Moshwan R, Zhang M, Li M, Liu S, Li N, Cao T, Liu W, Shi X, Chen Z. Compromising Configurational Entropy Leading to Exceptional Thermoelectric Properties in SnTe-Based Materials. Adv Funct Mater. 2025, 352418291.

[12] Cheng Y, Zhu T, He Q, Wen F, Cheng Y, Huang J, Lai Y, Li H. Hydrogel-Based Moisture Electric Generator with High Output Performance Induced by Proton Hopping. Adv Funct Mater. 2025, 352500186.

[13] He C, Shi X, Li N, Li M, Pei J, Chen Z. Ductile inorganic thermoelectrics: advances, challenges, and perspectives. Adv Energy Mater. 2025, 15. e03115

[14] Xing T, He A, Huang Z, Luo Y, Zhang Y, Wang M, Shi Z, Ke G, Bai J, Zhao S, Chen F, Xu W. Silk-based flexible electronics and smart wearable Textiles: Progress and beyond. Chem Eng J. 2023, 474. 145534

[15] Chen F, Shi Z, Luo Y, Qiao S, Tong A, Wang B, He J, Wang J, He A, Wang X, Huang Z, Ke W, Wu B, Ma P, Xu W. Advances in engineering room temperature liquid metal/fiber composites and systems. Nano Mater Sci. 2025.

[16] He X, Wu C, Zhang T, Chen Z, Wang L, Ouyang J. Ultrahigh thermoelectric properties of PEDOT: PSS Films by Dedoping and π-π Overlapping With 4-(1,3-dimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzoimidazol-2-yl)phenyl)Dimethylamine (N-DMBI). Adv Funct Mater. 2025, 352506872.

[17] Zhao K, Li S, Zan G, Kim G, Jiang W, Park J, Yoon J, Oh J, Jang J, Lee S, Shin E, Kim H, Park C. Moisture-driven energy generation by vertically structured polymer aerogel on water-collecting gel. Nano Energy. 2024, 126. 109645

[18] Guo S, Zhang Y, Yu Z, Dai M, Liu X, Wang H, Liu S, Koh JJ, Sun W, Feng Y, Chen Y, Yang L, Sun P, Lu G, Yu C, Chen W, De Wolf S, Wang Z, Tan SC. Leaf-based energy harvesting and storage utilizing hygroscopic iron hydrogel for continuous power generation. Nat Commun. 2025, 165267.

[19] Guo S, Patel S, Wang J, Yu Z, Qu H, Zhang S, Yu K, Liu S, Koh JJ, Koh XQ, Ooi Z-E, Seng DHL, Sun W, Yang L, Zhang Y, Wang J, Ravi SK, Yu C, Tan SC. Self-powered green energy–harvesting and sensing interfaces based on hygroscopic gel and water-locking effects. Sci Adv. 2025, 11eadw5991.

[20] Guo S, Zhang S, Li H, Liu S, Koh JJ, Zhou M, Sun Z, Liu Y, Qu H, Yu Z, Zhang Y, Yang L, Chen W, He C, Lee C, Mao D, Ravi SK, Lai Y, Tan SC. Precisely manipulating polymer chain interactions for multifunctional hydrogels. Matter. 2025, 8. 101785

[21] Zan G, Li S, Zhao K, Kim H, Shin E, Lee K, Jang J, Kim G, Kim Y, Jiang W, Kim T, Kim W, Park C. Emerging bioinspired hydrovoltaic electricity generators. Energy Environ Sci. 2025, 1853.

[22] Zhao K, Lee J, Yu Z, Jiang W, Oh J, Kim G, Han H, Kim Y, Lee K, Lee S, Kim H, Kim T, Lee C, Lee H, Jang J, Park J, Zhang Y, Park C. Humidity-Tolerant Moisture-Driven Energy Generator with MXene Aerogel-Organohydrogel Bilayer. ACS Nano. 2023, 175472.

[23] Duan P, Wang C, Huang Y, Fu C, Lu X, Zhang Y, Yao Y, Chen L, He Q, Qian L, Yang T. Moisture-based green energy harvesting over 600 hours via photocatalysis-enhanced hydrovoltaic effect. Nat Commun. 2025, 16239.

[24] Wang H, Sun Y, He T, Huang Y, Cheng H, Li C, Xie D, Yang P, Zhang Y, Qu L. Bilayer of polyelectrolyte films for spontaneous power generation in air up to an integrated 1,000 V output. Nat Nanotechnol. 2021, 16. 811

[25] Xu T, Ding X, Cheng H, Han G, Qu L. Moisture-enabled electricity from hygroscopic materials: A new type of clean energy. Adv Mater. 2024, 36. e2209661

[26] Wang X, Lin Y, Jiao S, Liu X. Moisture-electric generator based on a facilely prepared cyanobacteria-Sodium alginate-chitosan composite hydrogel. Chem Commun. 2025, 61. 16572

[27] Yan H, Qi R. Effect of non-noble-metal electrode on moisture-enabled electric generator. ACS Appl Electron Mater. 2023, 5. 5809

[28] Huang L, He X, Hu J, Qin C, Huang C, Tang Y, Zhong F, Kong X, Wei X. Wearable sensor based on Covalent Organic Framework humidity films for long-term monitoring of tomato physiology under abiotic stress. ACS Nano. 2024, 18. 33105

[29] Liu W, Shi X-L, He X, Zhu S, Li Z, Li C, Zhang D, Li M, Wu X, Zhang H, Wang L, Qin X, Chen Z-G. A waterproof and ultra-elastic thermoelectric foam for underwater human signal detection. Nat Commun. 2026, 17. 1294

[30] Zhou M, Wu J, Huang L, Miao M, Cui Y, He X. Smart textiles: Sustainable, self-powered, portable, and durable wearable textiles for human health monitoring. Chem Eng J. 2025, 525. 170097

[31] Gao W, Liu F, Zheng Y, Wang C, Jian Y, Ju J, Wang W, Lu Z, Qiao Y. Long-lasting and high-power-density yarn-based moisture-enabled electric generator for self-powered electronic textiles. Small. 2025, 21. 2409438

[32] Li L, Hu B, Liu Q, Shi X, Chen Z. High-performance AgSbTe2 thermoelectrics: Advances, challenges, and perspectives. Adv Mater. 2024, 36. 2409275

[33] Shen D, Duley W, Peng P, Xiao M, Feng J, Liu L, Zou G, Zhou Y. Moisture-enabled electricity generation: From physics and materials to self-powered applications. Adv Mater. 2020, 32. e2003722

[34] Sun Z, Feng L, Wen X, Wang L, Qin X, Yu J. Nanofiber fabric based ion-gradient-enhanced moist-electric generator with a sustained voltage output of 11 volts. Mater Horizons. 2021, 82303.

[35] Shen D, Xiao M, Zou G, Liu L, Duley W, Zhou Y. Self-powered wearable electronics based on moisture enabled electricity generation. Adv Mater. 2018, 30. e1705925

[36] Sun Z, Wen X, Guo S, Zhou M, Wang L, Qin X, Tan S. Weavable yarn-shaped moisture-induced electric generator. Nano Energy. 2023, 116. 108748

[37] He X, Gu J, Hao Y, Zheng M, Wang L, Yu J, Qin X. Continuous manufacture of stretchable and integratable thermoelectric nanofiber yarn for human body energy harvesting and self-powered motion detection. Chem Eng J. 2022, 450. 137937

[38] Du S, Chen J, Zha T, Li J, Fang J, Zhou W. Silk fibroin-based bio-triboelectric materials for self-powered wearable electronics. Chem Eng J. 2025, 521. 166515

[39] Zheng M, Li A, He X, Wang L, Qin X. Liquid metals and electrospun nanofibers: a magical marriage for wearable electronics. Nano Energy. 2024, 129. 110078

[40] Shi X, Wang L, Lyu W, Cao T, Chen W, Hu B, Chen Z. Advancing flexible thermoelectrics for integrated electronics. Chem Soc Rev. 2024, 53. 9254

[41] Shao C, Gao J, Xu T, Ji B, Xiao Y, Gao C, Zhao Y, Qu L. Wearable fiberform hygroelectric generator. Nano Energy. 2018, 53. 698

[42] Wen X, Sun Z, Xie X, Zhou Q, Liu H, Wang L, Qin X, Tan S. High-performance fully stretchable moist-electric generator. Adv Funct Mater. 2024, 34. 2311128

Funding

Key Research and Development Project of Jiangsu Province(BE2023740)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Donghua University, Shanghai, China