Flexible Electrospun PDMS/PVDF-HFP Composite Nanofibers-Based Hybrid Nanogenerators for Efficient Mechanical Energy Harvesting and Multi-Sensing Applications

Abstract

The swift adoption of self-powered energy-harvesting technologies presents an exciting opportunity. However, the challenge lies in the development of flexible, energy-efficient, sensitive, and easy-to-assemble devices. Electrospun nanofibrous films can be used in hybrid nanogenerators (HyNGs) for advanced triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and serving self-powered sensor applications due to their exceptional electrical output, lightweight nature, and flexibility. In this study, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is integrated into a poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) polymer by electrospinning to fabricate PDMS/PVDF-HFP composite fibrous films (CFFs)-based HyNGs. The CFF exhibits exceptional β-phase fraction and dielectric properties that help to improve the HyNG’s electrical performance in a contact-separation mode. The optimized HyNG exhibits exceptional stability and durability during long-term operation, making it effective for harvesting biomechanical energy from low-power portable devices. Furthermore, it can operate as a sensor that engages an Arduino for motion-sensing applications. When combined with Arduino and Bluetooth modules, the HyNG sensor can offer an innovative solution for fitness tracking by transmitting step-count data directly to a smartphone. This capability empowers users to monitor their health through their activity levels effectively. Additionally, the HyNGs operate to build real-time speed sensing and overspeed alerts and find vehicle direction applications. From these results, the proposed HyNG can be leveraged by artificial intelligence models to simulate real-world scenarios and support decision-making processes that improve road safety applications.

Keywords

Hybrid nanogenerators / Mechanical energy harvesting / Wireless step-counting system / Direction sensing / Real-time speed sensing and overspeed alerts

References

[1] Fu H, Mei X, Yurchenko D, Zhou S, Theodossiades S, Nakano K, Yeatman EM. Rotational energy harvesting for self-powered sensing. Joule, 2021, 5: 1074.

[2] Yang L, Hu W, Cao R, Zhou Q, Hu C, Dong B, Song H, Xu L. Liquid metal modified all-nanofiber triboelectric nanogenerator for energy harvesting and multi-functional self-powered sensing. Chem Eng J, 2025, 517164372

[3] Xing T, He A, Huang Z, Luo Y, Zhang Y, Wang M, Shi Z, Ke G, Bai J, Zhao S, Chen F, Xu W. Silk-based flexible electronics and smart wearable textiles: progress and beyond. Chem Eng J, 2023, 474145534

[4] Zhang Q, Xin C, Shen F, Gong Y, Zi YL, Guo H, Li Z, Peng Y, Zhang Q, Wang ZL. Human body IoT systems based on the triboelectrification effect: energy harvesting, sensing, interfacing and communication. Energy Environ Sci, 2022, 15: 3688

[5] Luo H, Yang T, Jing X, Cui Y, Qin W. Environmental energy harvesting boosts self-powered sensing. Mater Today Energy, 2024, 40101502

[6] Zhao Y, Gao W, Dai K, Wang S, Yuan Z, Li J, Zhai W, Zheng G, Pan C, Liu C, Shen C. Bioinspired multifunctional photonic-electronic smart skin for ultrasensitive health monitoring, for visual and self-powered sensing. Adv Mater, 2021, 332102332

[7] Mensah A, Liao S, Amesimeku J, Li J, Chen Y, Hao Y, Yang J, Wang Q, Huang F, Liu Y, Wei Q, Lv P. Therapeutic smart insole technology with Archimedean algorithmic spiral triboelectric nanogenerator-based power system and sensors. Adv Fiber Mater, 2024, 6: 1746

[8] Li Z, Xu B, Han J, Tan D, Huang J, Gao Y, Fu H. Surface-modified liquid metal nanocapsules derived multiple triboelectric composites for efficient energy harvesting and wearable self-powered sensing. Chem Eng J, 2023, 460141737

[9] Kim K, Choi D, Ji S, Iniguez FB, Song YJ, Yoon SS, Kim J, An S. Highly transparent and flexible all-nanofiber-based piezocomposite containing BaTiO₃-embedded P(VDF-TrFE) nanofibers for harvesting and monitoring human kinetic movements. Adv Fiber Mater, 2024, 6: 1369

[10] Sun Y, Tan T, Yan Z. Smart ocean powering and sensing via mechanical energy harvesting: methods, advances, and challenges. Nano Energy, 2025, 141111128

[11] Shrestha K, Pradhan GB, Bhatta T, Sharma S, Lee S, Song H, Jeong S, Park JY. Intermediate nanofibrous charge trapping layer-based wearable triboelectric self-powered sensor for human activity recognition and user identification. Nano Energy, 2023, 108108180

[12] Zhang Q, Jin T, Cai J, Xu L, He T, Wang T, Tian Y, Li L, Peng Y, Lee C. Wearable triboelectric sensors enabled gait analysis and waist motion capture for IoT‐based smart healthcare applications. Adv Sci, 2022, 92103694

[13] Cui Y, Luo H, Yang T, Qin W, Jing X. Bio-inspired structures for energy harvesting self-powered sensing and smart monitoring. Mech Syst Signal Process, 2025, 228112459

[14] Feng L, Xu S, Sun T, Zhang C, Feng J, Yao L, Ge J. Fire/acid/alkali-resistant aramid/carbon nanofiber triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered biomotion and risk perception in fire and chemical environments. Adv Fiber Mater, 2023, 5: 1478

[15] Nie S, Cai C, Lin X, Zhang C, Lu Y, Mo J, Wang S. Chemically functionalized cellulose nanofibrils for improving triboelectric charge density of a triboelectric nanogenerator. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2020, 8: 18678

[16] Zhao J, Li H, Li C, Zhang Q, Sun J, Wang X, Guo J, Xie L, Xie J, He B, Zhou Z, Lu C, Lu W, Zhu G, Yao Y. MOF for template-directed growth of well-oriented nanowire hybrid arrays on carbon nanotube fibers for wearable electronics integrated with triboelectric nanogenerators. Nano Energy, 2018, 45: 420

[17] Liu Y, Mo J, Fu Q, Lu Y, Zhang N, Wang S, Nie S. Enhancement of triboelectric charge density by chemical functionalization. Adv Funct Mater, 2020, 302004714

[18] Manchi P, Paranjape MV, Graham SA, Kurakula A, Lee JK, Kavarthapu VS, Yu JS. Niobium-doped bismuth titanate-loaded pvdf-hfp flexible composite films for self-powered stair sensing and emergency alert applications via hybrid mechanical energy harvesters. Adv Funct Mater, 2024, 342400371

[19] Xu Q, Lu Y, Zhao S, Hu N, Jiang Y, Li H, Wang Y, Gao H, Li Y, Yuan M, Chu L, Li J, Xie Y. A wind vector detecting system based on triboelectric and photoelectric sensors for simultaneously monitoring wind speed and direction. Nano Energy, 2021, 89106382

[20] Wu C, Jiang P, Li W, Guo H, Wang J, Chen J, Prausnitz MR, Wang ZL. Self-powered iontophoretic transdermal drug delivery system driven and regulated by biomechanical motions. Adv Funct Mater, 2020, 301907378

[21] Jiang C, Wu C, Li X, Yao Y, Lan L, Zhao F, Ye Z, Ying Y, Ping J. All-electrospun flexible triboelectric nanogenerator based on metallic MXene nanosheets. Nano Energy, 2019, 59: 268

[22] Gu J, Lee D, Oh J, Si H, Kim K. Synergy of polydopamine-assisted additive modification and hierarchical-morphology poly(vinylidene fluoride) nanofiber mat for ferroelectric-assisted triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv Fiber Mater, 2024, 61910

[23] Fan C, Zhang Y, Liao S, Zhao M, Lv P, Wei Q. Manufacturing technics for fabric/fiber-based triboelectric nanogenerators: from yarns to micro-nanofibers. Nanomaterials, 2022, 122703

[24] Li Y, Xiao S, Luo Y, Tian S, Tang J, Zhang X, Xiong J. Advances in electrospun nanofibers for triboelectric nanogenerators. Nano Energy, 2022, 104107884

[25] Kavarthapu VS, Graham SA, Manchi P, Paranjape MV, Yu JS. Electrospun ZnSnO₃/PVDF-HFP nanofibrous triboelectric films for efficient mechanical energy harvesting. Adv Fiber Mater, 2023, 5: 1685

[26] Ruiz-Rosas R, Bedia J, Lallave M, Loscertales IG, Barrero A, Rodríguez-Mirasol J, Cordero T. The production of submicron diameter carbon fibers by the electrospinning of lignin. Carbon, 2010, 48: 696

[27] Li Y, Tong W, Yang J, Wang Z, Wang D, An Q, Zhang Y. Electrode-free piezoelectric nanogenerator based on carbon black/polyvinylidene fluoride–hexafluoropropylene composite achieved via interface polarization effect. Chem Eng J, 2023, 457141356

[28] Hernández-Cuevas G, Leyva Mendoza JR, García-Casillas PE, Olivas-Armendariz I, Mani-González PG, Díaz de la Torre S, Raymond-Herrera O, Martínez-Guerra E, Espinosa-Almeyda Y, Camacho-Montes H. Synthesis and characterization of niobium doped bismuth titanate. Bol Soc Esp Ceram Vidrio, 2023, 62: 220.

[29] Tafur JP, Santos F, Fernández Romero AJ. Influence of the ionic liquid type on the gel polymer electrolytes properties. Membr, 2015, 5: 752

[30] Du G, Wang J, Liu Y, Yuan J, Liu T, Cai C, Luo B, Zhu S, Wei Z, Wang S, Nie S. Fabrication of Advanced Cellulosic Triboelectric Materials via Dielectric Modulation. Adv Sci, 2023, 102206243

[31] Shi K, Zou H, Sun B, Jiang P, He J, Huang X. Dielectric modulated cellulose paper/PDMS-based triboelectric nanogenerators for wireless transmission and electropolymerization applications. Adv Funct Mater, 2020, 301904536

[32] Venkatesan HM, Mohammad SR, Ponnan S, Kim KJ, Gajula P, Kim H, Arun AP. Cobalt ferrite-embedded polyvinylidene fluoride electrospun nanocomposites as flexible triboelectric sensors for healthcare and polysomnographic monitoring applications. Nano Energy, 2024, 129110003

[33] Liu L, Li J, Ou-Yang W, Guan Z, Hu X, Xie M, Tian Z. Ferromagnetic-assisted Maxwell’s displacement current based on iron/polymer composite for improving the triboelectric nanogenerator output. Nano Energy, 2022, 96107139

[34] Liu S, Qing W, Zhang D, Gan C, Zhang J, Liao S, Wei K, Zou H. Flexible staircase triboelectric nanogenerator for motion monitoring and gesture recognition. Nano Energy, 2024, 128109849

[35] Yoo JU, Kim DH, Choi TM, Jung ES, Lee HR, Lee CY, Pyo SG. Advancements in flexible nanogenerators: polyvinylidene fluoride-based nanofiber utilizing electrospinning. Molecules, 2024, 293576

[36] Gade H, Nikam S, Chase GG, Reneker DH. Effect of electrospinning conditions on β-phase and surface charge potential of PVDF fibers. Polymer, 2021, 228123902

[37] Shehata N, Nair R, Jain A, Gamal M, Hassanin A, Noman S, Shyha I, Kruczała K, Saad M, Kandas I. Multifaceted enhancement of piezoelectricity and optical fluorescence in electrospun PVDF-ceria nanocomposite. Sci Rep, 2025, 15: 14073

[38] Jiang S, Chen Y, Duan G, Mei C, Greiner A, Agarwal S. Electrospun nanofiber reinforced composites: a review. Polym Chem, 2018, 9: 2685

[39] Nishi Y, Kasai Y, Suzuki R, Matsubara M, Muramatsu A, Kanie K. Gallium-doped zinc oxide nanoparticle thin films as transparent electrode materials with high conductivity. ACS Appl Nano Mater, 2020, 3: 9622

[40] Dong Y, Duan L, Mao X, Gu T, Gu Y, Yu H, Zhang X, Ye T, Wang X, Li P, Wu J, Wu H, Fan K, Hu L, Wang F, Tang L, Tao K. Exploring human motions for smart wearables: energy conversion, harvesting and self–powered sensing. Nano Energy, 2025, 143111289

[41] Xu K, Peng T, Zhang B, Wu Y, Huang Z, Guan Q. Zinc oxide bridges the nanofillers to enhance the wear resistance and stability of triboelectric nanogenerators. Chem Eng J, 2024, 493152532

[42] Shahabadi SMS, Kheradmand A, Montazeri V, Ziaee H. Effects of process and ambient parameters on diameter and morphology of electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofibers. Polym Sci Ser A, 2015, 57: 155

[43] Ahmad RuS, Haleem A, Haider Z, Claver UP, Fareed A, Khan I, Mbogba MK, Memon K, Ali W, He W, Hu P, Zhao G. Realizing the capability of negatively charged graphene oxide in the presence of conducting polyaniline for performance enhancement of tribopositive material of triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv Electron Mater, 2020, 62000034

[44] Shen X, Han W, Jiang Y, Ding Q, Li X, Zhao X, Li Z. Punching pores on cellulose fiber paper as the spacer of triboelectric nanogenerator for monitoring human motion. Energy Rep, 2020, 6: 2851.

[45] Dharmasena RDIG, Jayawardena KDGI, Mills CA, Deane JHB, Anguita JV, Dorey RA, Silva SRP. Triboelectric nanogenerators: providing a fundamental framework. Energy Environ Sci, 2017, 10: 1801.

[46] Kavarthapu VS, Graham SA, Manchi P, Paranjape MV, Kurakula A, Lee JK, Yu JS. BaZnF₄/polydimethylsiloxane composite film-based nanogenerators for energy harvesting and human-machine interface applications. ACS Appl Nano Mater, 2024, 7: 15277

[47] Li Y, Guo Z, Zhao Z, Gao Y, Yang P, Qiao W, Zhou L, Wang J, Wang ZL. Multi-layered triboelectric nanogenerator incorporated with self-charge excitation for efficient water wave energy harvesting. Appl Energy, 2023, 336120792

[48] Guan X, Xu B, Wu M, Jing T, Yang Y, Gao Y. Breathable, washable and wearable woven-structured triboelectric nanogenerators utilizing electrospun nanofibers for biomechanical energy harvesting and self-powered sensing. Nano Energy, 2021, 80105549

[49] Sun C, Zu G, Wei Y, Song X, Yang X. Flexible triboelectric nanogenerators based on electrospun poly(vinylidene fluoride) with MoS₂/carbon nanotube composite nanofibers. Langmuir, 2022, 38: 1479

[50] Kang X, Pan C, Chen Y, Pu X, Kang X, Chen Y, Pu X, Pan C, Pu X. Boosting performances of triboelectric nanogenerators by optimizing dielectric properties and thickness of electrification layer. RSC Adv, 2020, 10: 17752

[51] Wang J, Chen Y, Xu Y, Mu J, Li J, Nie S, Chen S, Xu F. Sustainable lignin-based electrospun nanofibers for enhanced triboelectric nanogenerators. Sustain Energy Fuels, 2022, 6: 1974

[52] Huang J, Hao Y, Zhao M, Li W, Huang F, Wei Q. All-fiber-structured triboelectric nanogenerator via one-pot electrospinning for self-powered wearable sensors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021, 13: 24774

[53] Zhang JH, Zhou Z, Li J, Shen B, Zhu T, Gao X, Tao R, Guo X, Hu X, Shi Y, Pan L. Coupling enhanced performance of triboelectric-piezoelectric hybrid nanogenerator based on nanoporous film of poly(vinylidene fluoride)/batio₃composite electrospun fibers. ACS Mater Lett, 2022, 4: 847

[54] Treasa Mathew D, K.v V, Nayar NV, Manoj N, Saji KJ, Pillai SC, John H. Surface area enhanced nylon-6,6 nanofiber engineered triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered seat monitoring applications. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2022, 10: 14126

[55] Sun N, Wang GG, Zhao HX, Cai YW, Li JZ, Li GZ, Zhang XN, Wang BL, Han JC, Wang Y, Yang Y. Waterproof, breathable and washable triboelectric nanogenerator based on electrospun nanofiber films for wearable electronics. Nano Energy, 2021, 90106639

Funding

National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean government(2018R1A6A1A03025708)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Donghua University, Shanghai, China

Just Accepted

This article has successfully passed peer review and final editorial review, and will soon enter typesetting, proofreading and other publishing processes. The currently displayed version is the accepted final manuscript. The officially published version will be updated with format, DOI and citation information upon launch. We recommend that you pay attention to subsequent journal notifications and preferentially cite the officially published version. Thank you for your support and cooperation.