Assessing the impacts of urban development and tourism on sea turtles and their habitat: a systematic review

Abstract

Coastal urbanization and tourism are rapidly expanding, intensifying pressures on sea turtles and the habitats they depend on. Although numerous studies document anthropogenic threats, the indicators used to quantify the specific impacts of these two drivers remain fragmented and inconsistent. This systematic review synthesizes global evidence on how tourism and urban development affect sea turtles across life stages and identifies the indicators employed to assess these effects. Following PRISMA guidelines, 5,886 publications from 1960 to 2025 were screened, and 45 met all eligibility criteria. Most studies were conducted in Mexico, Brazil, and the United States, with a strong focus on green and loggerhead turtles, especially on nesting beaches. Urban development assessments commonly used standardized spatial, chemical, and physiological indicators such as light pollution, microplastics, heavy metals, and habitat alteration facilitating alignment with global monitoring frameworks. In contrast, tourism studies relied mainly on behavioral indicators, including nest abandonment, altered movement patterns, and vessel-related disturbances, which are less comparable across regions. Overall, the findings reveal limited methodological cohesion and highlight the need for harmonized, operational indicators that integrate ecological, technological, and socio-environmental dimensions. Strengthening these frameworks is essential to support global monitoring efforts and improve conservation strategies for sea turtles in increasingly modified coastal systems.

Keywords

Nesting beaches / In-water habitat / Pollutants / Essential ocean variables / Indicators

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