Spatiotemporal variability of Total Suspended Sediment (TSS) in the Banda Aceh coastal zone, Indonesia, and its environmental implications

Abstract

Understanding the variability of Total Suspended Sediment (TSS) is essential for managing sediment-related pollution in estuarine and coastal environments. This study aimed to analyze the spatial and temporal variability of TSS along the Banda Aceh coast, Indonesia, and its extended impacts on the surrounding environment using an integrated approach that combines satellite remote sensing, hydrodynamic modeling, and multivariate statistical analysis. Satellite-derived TSS concentrations were estimated from Sentinel 2A imagery using empirical algorithms, with the green/blue band ratio (B3/B2) performing best (R² = 0.47, RMSE = 21.73 mg/L) against in-situ observations. Hydrodynamic simulations conducted using MIKE 21 revealed marked spatial and temporal variability in TSS distribution driven by tidal conditions and estuarine morphology. During spring tides, stronger currents (up to 0.45 m/s) facilitated widespread TSS dispersal offshore, with concentrations exceeding 250 mg/L in Ulee Lheue and Alue Naga Estuary. In contrast, neap tides resulted in slower current speeds (< 0.20 m/s) and higher TSS retention near the river mouths. The Krueng Aceh Estuary exhibited more stable and lower TSS concentrations (< 181 mg/L) because of its open configuration and reduced sediment trapping. Principal Component Analysis showed that the TSS was positively correlated with turbidity and chlorophyll-a, underscoring its role in controlling water clarity and nutrient dynamics. These findings demonstrate the dominant influence of tidal dynamics, anthropogenic contributions, and riverine discharge on the coastal water quality. The combined remote sensing–modeling framework offers a scalable approach for sediment monitoring and management in other vulnerable, urbanizing coastal systems.

Keywords

Total Suspended Sediment (TSS) / Remote sensing / Tidal dynamics / Banda Aceh / Estuarine pollution

References

[1] Adjovu GE, Stephen H, James D, Ahmad S. Measurement of total dissolved solids and total suspended solids in water systems: a review of the issues, conventional, and remote sensing techniques. Remote Sens, 2023, 15(14): 3534

[2] Afgatiani PM, Hartuti M, Budhiman S. Deteksi Sebaran Muatan Padatan Tersuspensi Dengan Model Empiris dan Model Semi-Analitik di Perairan Bekasi. Jurnal Ilmu Dan Teknol Kelautan Tropis, 2020, 12(2): 341-351 In Indonesian)

[3] Ahn JH, Grant SB, Surbeck CQ, DiGiacomo PM, Nezlin NP, Jiang S. Coastal water quality impact of stormwater runoff from an urban watershed in southern California. Environ Sci Technol, 2005, 39(16): 5940-5953

[4] Bayhaqi A, Wisha UJ, Iswari MY. The evidence of coastline changes in Banten Bay, Indonesia. Trends in Sciences, 2022, 19(4): 2198-2198

[5] Bhat SA, Meraj G, Yaseen S, Pandit AK. Statistical assessment of water quality parameters for pollution source identification in Sukhnag stream: an inflow stream of lake Wular (Ramsar Site), Kashmir Himalaya. Journal of Ecosystems, 2014, 2014(1): 898054

[6] Bioresita F, Firdaus HS, Pribadi CB, Hariyanto T, Puissant A (2018) The Use of Sentinel-2 Imagery for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Estimation in Porong River, Sidoarjo. Elipsoida: Jurnal Geodesi dan Geomatika 1(01). https://doi.org/10.14710/elipsoida.2018.2726

[7] Bordalo AA, Chalermwat K, Teixeira C. Nutrient variability and its influence on nitrogen processes in a highly turbid tropical estuary (Bangpakong, Gulf of Thailand). J Environ Sci (China), 2016, 45: 131-142

[8] Budhiman S, Hobma T, Vekerdy Z (2004) Remote sensing for Mapping TSM concentration in Mahakam Delta: an analytical approach. In The Thirteenth Workshop of OMISAR. pp. 1–14

[9] Cai L, Chen S, Yan X, Bai Y, Bu J. Study on high-resolution suspended sediment distribution under the influence of coastal zone engineering in the Yangtze River mouth. China Remote Sensing, 2022, 14(3): 486

[10] Cao B, Qiu J, Zhang W, Xie X, Lu X, Yang X, Li H. Retrieval of suspended sediment concentrations in the Pearl River estuary using multi-source satellite imagery. Remote Sens, 2022, 14(16): 3896

[11] Chen W, Wang J, Cao X, Ran H, Teng D, Chen J, Zheng X. Possibility of using multiscale normalized difference vegetation index data for the assessment of total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations in surface water: a specific case of scale issues in remote sensing. Environ Res, 2021, 194: 110636

[12] Chen J, Huang J, Zhang X, Chen J, Chen X. Monitoring total suspended solids concentration in Poyang Lake via machine learning and Landsat images. J Hydrol Reg Stud, 2023, 49: 101499

[13] Cherukuru N, Martin P, Sanwlani N, Mujahid A, Müller M. A semi-analytical optical remote sensing model to estimate suspended sediment and dissolved organic carbon in tropical coastal waters influenced by peatland-draining river discharges off Sarawak, Borneo. Remote Sens, 2020, 13(1): 99

[14] Chu TV, Torréton JP, Mari X, Nguyen HMT, Pham KT, Pham TT, Bouvier T, Bettarel Y, Pringault O, Bouvier C, Rochelle-Newall E. Nutrient ratios and the complex structure of phytoplankton communities in a highly turbid estuary of Southeast Asia. Environ Monit Assess, 2014, 186(12): 8555-8572

[15] Cordova MR, Riani E, Shiomoto A. Microplastics ingestion by blue panchax fish (Aplocheilus sp.) from Ciliwung Estuary, Jakarta, Indonesia. Mar Pollut Bull, 2020, 161: 111763

[16] Dang TD, Cochrane TA, Arias ME. Quantifying suspended sediment dynamics in mega deltas using remote sensing data: a case study of the Mekong floodplains. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf, 2018, 68: 105-115

[17] Du Y, Zhang Y, Ling F, Wang Q, Li W, Li X. Water bodies’ mapping from Sentinel-2 imagery with modified normalized difference water index at 10-m spatial resolution produced by sharpening the SWIR band. Remote Sens, 2016, 8(4): 354

[18] Fang LG, Chen SS, Li D, Li HL. Use of reflectance ratios as a proxy for coastal water constituent monitoring in the Pearl River Estuary. Sensors (Basel), 2009, 9(1): 656-673

[19] Fattria R, Kusumaningrum W. Karakteristik Sebaran Total Suspended Solid (TSS) Menggunakan Citra Sentinel-2 pada Perairan Muara Berau Provinsi Kalimantan Timur. Maspari Journal-Marine Science Research, 2023, 15(2): 104-114 In Indonesian)

[20] Fayomi GU, Onyari EK, Jaiyeola AT, Ode GO. Unveiling the outcome of multispectral indices in evaluating total suspended solid of water quality. Remote Sens Appl Soc Environ, 2024, 36: 101381

[21] Ghuvita Hadi ZN, Hariyanto T, Hayati N. Estimation of total suspended sediment solid in Porong River waters using multitemporal satellite imagery. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci, 2021, 936(No. 1): 012006

[22] Hamdan AM, Fajar MT, Mustaqin R, Wahid MA, Maulana R, Zainuddin MF. Monitoring of river estuary turbidity using satellite image analysis and its correlation to rainfall (a case study of the krueng river in aceh, indonesia). Jurnal Fisika Flux, 2022, 19(3): 222-223

[23] Harmesa H, Cordova MR. A preliminary study on heavy metal pollutants chrome (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) in sediments and beach morning glory vegetation (Ipomoea pes-caprae) from Dasun Estuary, Rembang. Indonesia Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2020, 162: 111819

[24] Hersbach H, Bell B, Berrisford P, Biavati G, Horányi A, Muñoz Sabater J, Nicolas J, Peubey C, Radu R, Rozum I, Schepers D, Simmons A, Soci C, Dee D, Thépaut J-N (2023). ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47

[25] Hunt BP, Alin S, Bidlack A, Diefenderfer HL, Jackson JM, Kellogg CT, Vargas CA. Advancing an integrated understanding of land–ocean connections in shaping the marine ecosystems of coastal temperate rainforest ecoregions. Limnol Oceanogr, 2024, 69(12): 3061-3096

[26] Irham M. The spatial distribution of bed sediment on fluvial system: a mini review of the Aceh meandering river. Aceh Int J Sci Technol, 2016, 5(2): 82-87

[27] Irham M, Abrar F, Kurnianda V. Analisis BOD dan COD di perairan estuaria Krueng Cut, Banda Aceh. Depik, 2017, 6(3): 199-204 In Indonesian)

[28] Irham M, Fadhla Y, Setiawan I (2018) The spatial distribution of suspended sediment analysis along Krueng Cut River, Banda Aceh. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 106, No. 1, p. 012066). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/106/1/012066

[29] Islam MS, Tanaka M. Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. Mar Pollut Bull, 2004, 48(7–8): 624-649

[30] Izah SC, Iyiola AO, Richard G (2023) Impacts of pollution on the hydrogeochemical and microbial community of aquatic ecosystems in Bayelsa State, Southern Nigeria. Hydrogeochemistry of aquatic ecosystems, 283–305. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119870562.ch13

[31] Kurniawan TA, Avtar R, Singh D, Xue W, Othman MHD, Hwang GH, Iswanto I, Albadarin AB, Kern AO. Reforming MSWM in Sukunan (Yogjakarta, Indonesia): a case-study of applying a zero-waste approach based on circular economy paradigm. J Clean Prod, 2021, 284: 124775

[32] Li Y, Shi Y, Zhu X, Cao H, Yu T. Coastal wetland loss and environmental change due to rapid urban expansion in Lianyungang, Jiangsu. China Regional Environmental Change, 2014, 14(3): 1175-1188

[33] Liu J, Li Y, Pan Q, Zhang T. Suspended sediment transport and turbidity maximum in a macro-tidal estuary with mountain streams: a case study of the Oujiang Estuary. Cont Shelf Res, 2023, 255: 104924

[34] Manh NV, Dung NV, Hung NN, Merz B, Apel H. Large-scale suspended sediment transport and sediment deposition in the Mekong Delta. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci, 2014, 18(8): 3033-3053

[35] Mascarenhas AC, Gomes GS, Lima AP, da Silva HK, Santana LS, Rosário RP, Rollnic M. Seasonal variations of the Amazon River plume with focus on the Eastern sector. J Coastal Res, 2016, 75: 532-536

[36] Maslukah L, Sadewo M, Rochaddi B, Widada S, Wirasatriya A, Wisha UJ (2024) Estimation of Suspended Particulate Matter Using Landsat 9 Imagery: Generating Algorithms and Spatio-Temporal Distributions. ILMU KELAUTAN: Indonesian J Marine Sci 29(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.14710/ik.ijms.29.1.15-28

[37] Meutia ZD. Natural landscape planning as tsunami disaster mitigation: a case in Uleu Lheue, Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Int J Disaster Manag, 2022, 5(1): 1-14

[38] Muleta MK, Nicklow JW. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis coupled with automatic calibration for a distributed watershed model. J Hydrol, 2005, 306(1–4): 127-145

[39] Ondara K, Dhiauddin R. Indonesia marine debris: Banda Aceh coastal environment identification. Jurnal Kelautan Tropis, 2020, 23(1): 117-126

[40] Ondara K, Agustina S, Purnawan S. TSS distribution of Banda Aceh waters. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci, 2021, 674(1): 012051

[41] Saberioon M, Brom J, Nedbal V, Souc̆ek P, Císar̆ P (2020) Chlorophyll-a and total suspended solids retrieval and mapping using Sentinel-2A and machine learning for inland waters. Ecol Indicators 113, 106236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106236

[42] Sankaran R, Al-Khayat JA, Chatting ME, Sadooni FN, Al-Kuwari HAS. Retrieval of suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in the Arabian Gulf water of arid region by Sentinel-2 data. Sci Total Environ, 2023, 904: 166875

[43] Sejr MK, Poste AE, Renaud PE. Multiple climatic drivers increase pace and consequences of ecosystem change in the Arctic Coastal Ocean. Limnol Oceanogr Lett, 2024, 9(6): 683-695

[44] Setiawan I, Haditiar Y, Syukri M, Ismail N, Rizal S (2023) Suspended sediment transport generated by non-hydrostatic hydrodynamics in Northern Waters of Aceh, Indonesia. Heliyon 9(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17367

[45] Surinati D, Wisha UJ, Bayhaqi A, Prayitno HB, Rahmawati S. Trapped sediment in seagrass ecosystem: Bintan island. J Sustain Sci Manag, 2023, 18(8): 146-162

[46] Syawani U, Haditiar Y, Ikhwan M, Wafdan R, Muhammad M, Setiawan I, Jalil Z, Chaliluddin MA, Rizal S (2021) Identification of total suspended solid (TSS) in the Aceh waters from ocean color. J Phys: Conf Ser 1882(1):012022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1882/1/012022

[47] Trinh LH, Zablotskii VR, Le TG, Dinh TTH, Le TT, Trinh TT, Nguyen TTN. Estimation of suspended sediment concentration using VNREDSat–1A multispectral data, a case study in Red River, Hanoi, Vietnam. Geography, Environment, Sustainability, 2018, 11(3): 49-60

[48] Turner JS, Friedrichs CT, Friedrichs MA. Long-term trends in Chesapeake Bay remote sensing reflectance: implications for water clarity. J Geophys Res Oceans, 2021, 126(12): e2021JC017959

[49] Ulfah M, Fajri SN, Nasir M, Agustina S, Purnawan S. Temporal of reef fish communities in the coastal water of Krueng Raya, Aceh Besar Regency. Indonesia. Aceh J Anim Sci, 2020, 5(1): 11-17

[50] Wang A, Wu X, Bi N, Ralston DK, Wang C, Wang H. Combined effects of waves and tides on bottom sediment resuspension in the southern Yellow Sea. Mar Geol, 2022, 452: 106892

[51] Wisha UJ, Ondara K. Total suspended solid (TSS) distributed by tidal currents during low to high tide phase in the waters of Sayung, Demak: its relations to water quality parameters. J Mar Aquat Sci, 2017, 3(2): 154-162

[52] Wisha UJ, Wijaya YJ, Hisaki Y (2025a) Effects of Sea-Level Rise on Tidal Bore Characteristics and Sediment Dynamics in the Kampar Estuary, Indonesia. Reg Stud Mar Sci 104426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2025.104426

[53] Wisha UJ, Wijaya YJ, Hisaki Y. Water quality in the macro-tidal Kampar estuary, Indonesia: real-time measurement during significant tidal bore passages. Kawait J Sci, 2025, 52(3): 100409

[54] Xing Q, Lou M, Chen C, Shi P. Using in situ and satellite hyperspectral data to estimate the surface suspended sediments concentrations in the Pearl River estuary. IEEE J Sel Top Appl Earth Observ Remote Sens, 2013, 6(2): 731-738

[55] Yunus AP, Masago Y, Hijioka Y. Analysis of long-term (2002–2020) trends and peak events in total suspended solids concentrations in the Chesapeake Bay using MODIS imagery. J Environ Manage, 2021, 299: 113550

[56] Zhang X, Huang J, Chen J, Zhao Y. Remote sensing monitoring of total suspended solids concentration in Jiaozhou Bay based on multi-source data. Ecol Indic, 2023, 154: 110513

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)