Characteristic Features of Impact of COVID-19 Pandemics on Mental Health of Population of Different Countries: Results of Cross-Sectional Online Studies in Albania, India, Iran and Nigeria

Abstract

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus infection of 2019 (COVID-19) produced an incontestable impact on the mental health of people around the world. This impact is conditioned by a complex interrelation of social, cultural, economic and COVID-19-associated factors. However, insufficient data on comparison of parameters of mental health of the population in different countries limits our understanding of these interrelations.

AIM: To evaluate and compare the frequency of mental health disorders (general problems and problems related to COVID-19) and their correlations in four countries: Albania, India, Iran and Nigeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, the problems of mental health of the population of four countries (Albania, India, Iran and Nigeria) were investigated. The participants were selected in the period from July 07, 2020 to November 13, 2020. The study used a cross-check anonymous online questioning to assess the degree of depression, anxiety and insomnia, which included “Patient Health Questionnaire” (PHQ-9), “Generalized Anxiety Disorder” 7 (GAD-7) questionnaire and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI). To assess the mental health problems associated with COVID-19, the survey included Corona Anxiety Scale (CAS), Obsession with COVID-19 Scale (OCS) and Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S). To analyze the data, ꭓ², Kruskal–Wallis tests and multiple linear regression were used.

RESULTS: In general, the prevalence of general anxiety, depression, insomnia and COVID-19-associated anxiety, was higher among the Iranian population compared to the other three countries. Risk factors for increased anxiety about the new coronavirus infection were fear, depression, trouble and age; however, these factors were different in the four studied countries. The parameter was highest (47%) in the Albanian population and lowest (20%) in India.

CONCLUSIONS: This study shows different prevalence of psychological health disorders during the ongoing pandemics, including problems associated with COVID-19, in different countries. Therefore, healthcare policy and measures adopted in different countries, should be adapted to specific needs of the country rather than be based on the universal global responsive measures.

Keywords

COVID-19 / тревога / депрессия / бессонница / психологическое здоровье

References

[1] Ransing R, Adiukwu F, Pereira-Sanchez V, et al. Mental Health Interventions during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Conceptual Framework by Early Career Psychiatrists. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;51:102085. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102085

[2] Ransing R., Adiukwu F., Pereira–Sanchez V., et al. Mental Health Interventions during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Conceptual Framework by Early Career Psychiatrists // Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020. Vol. 51. P. 102085. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102085

[3] Roy A, Singh AK, Mishra S, et al. Mental health implications of COVID-19 pandemic and its response in India. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2021;67(5):587–600. doi: 10.1177/0020764020950769

[4] Roy A., Singh A.K., Mishra S., et al. Mental health implications of COVID-19 pandemic and its response in India // The International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2021. Vol. 67, № 5. P. 587–600. doi: 10.1177/0020764020950769

[5] Hoyer C, Ebert A, Szabo K, et al. Decreased utilization of mental health emergency service during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2021;271(2):377–9. doi: 10.1007/s00406-020-01151-w

[6] Hoyer C., Ebert A., Szabo K., et al. Decreased utilization of mental health emergency service during the COVID-19 pandemic // European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2021. Vol. 271, № 2. P. 377–379. doi: 10.1007/s00406-020-01151-w

[7] Magamela MR, Dzinamarira T, Hlongwa M. COVID-19 consequences on mental health: An African perspective. The South African Journal of Psychiatry. 2021;27:1611. doi: 10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v27i0.1611

[8] Magamela M.R., Dzinamarira T., Hlongwa M. COVID-19 consequences on mental health: An African perspective // The South African Journal of Psychiatry. 2021. Vol. 27. P. 1611. doi: 10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v27i0.1611

[9] Olff M, Primasari I, Qing Y, et al. Mental health responses to COVID-19 around the world. European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 2021;12(1):1929754. doi: 10.1080/20008198.2021.1929754

[10] Olff M., Primasari I., Qing Y., et al. Mental health responses to COVID-19 around the world // European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 2021. Vol. 12, № 1. P. 1929754. doi: 10.1080/20008198.2021.1929754

[11] Hassannia L, Taghizadeh F, Moosazadeh M, et al. Anxiety and Depression in Health Workers and General Population During COVID-19 in IRAN: A Cross-Sectional Study. Neuropsychopharmacology Repots. 2021;41(1):40–9. doi: 10.1002/npr2.12153

[12] Hassannia L., Taghizadeh F., Moosazadeh M., et al. Anxiety and Depression in Health Workers and General Population During COVID-19 in IRAN: A Cross-Sectional Study // Neuropsychopharmacology Repots. 2021. Vol. 41, № 1. P. 40–49. doi: 10.1002/npr2.12153

[13] Pouralizadeh M, Bostani Z, Maroufizadeh S, et al. Anxiety and depression and the related factors in nurses of Guilan University of Medical Sciences hospitals during COVID-19: A web-based cross-sectional study. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences. 2020;13:100233. doi: 10.1016/j.ijans.2020.100233

[14] Pouralizadeh M., Bostani Z., Maroufizadeh S., et al. Anxiety and depression and the related factors in nurses of Guilan University of Medical Sciences hospitals during COVID-19: A web-based cross-sectional study // International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences. 2020. Vol. 13. P. 100233. doi: 10.1016/j.ijans.2020.100233

[15] Gupta B, Sharma V, Kumar N, et al. Anxiety and Sleep Disturbances Among Health Care Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic in India: Cross-Sectional Online Survey. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance. 2020;6(4):e24206. doi: 10.2196/24206

[16] Gupta B., Sharma V., Kumar N., et al. Anxiety and Sleep Disturbances Among Health Care Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic in India: Cross-Sectional Online Survey // JMIR Public Health and Surveillance. 2020. Vol. 6, № 4. P. e24206. doi: 10.2196/24206

[17] Hosseinzadeh–Shanjani Z, Hajimiri K, Rostami B, et al. Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Levels Among Healthcare Staff During the COVID-19 Epidemic. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience. 2020;11(2):163–70. doi: 10.32598/bcn.11.covid19.651.4

[18] Hosseinzadeh–Shanjani Z., Hajimiri K., Rostami B., et al. Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Levels Among Healthcare Staff During the COVID-19 Epidemic // Basic and Clinical Neuroscience. 2020. Vol. 11, № 2. P. 163–170. doi: 10.32598/bcn.11.covid19.651.4

[19] Xiong J, Lipsitz O, Nasri F, et al. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2020;277:55–64. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001

[20] Xiong J., Lipsitz O., Nasri F., et al. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: A systematic review // Journal of Affective Disorders. 2020. Vol. 277. P. 55–64. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001

[21] Luo M, Guo L, Yu M, et al. The psychological and mental impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on medical staff and general public ― A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research. 2020;291:113190. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113190

[22] Luo M., Guo L., Yu M., et al. The psychological and mental impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on medical staff and general public ― A systematic review and meta-analysis // Psychiatry Research. 2020. Vol. 291. P. 113190. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113190

[23] Suryakumari VBP, Pallavi Reddy Y, Yadav SS, et al. Assessing Fear and Anxiety of Corona Virus Among Dental Practitioners. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 2022;16(2):555–60. doi: 10.1017/dmp.2020.350

[24] Suryakumari V.B.P., Pallavi Reddy Y., Yadav S.S., et al. Assessing Fear and Anxiety of Corona Virus Among Dental Practitioners // Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 2022. Vol. 16, № 2. P. 555–560. doi: 10.1017/dmp.2020.350

[25] Lin C–Y, Broström A, Griffiths MD, et al. Investigating mediated effects of fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 misunderstanding in the association between problematic social media use, psychological distress, and insomnia. Internet Interventions. 2020;21:100345. doi: 10.1016/j.invent.2020.100345

[26] Lin C.–Y., Broström A., Griffiths M.D., et al. Investigating mediated effects of fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 misunderstanding in the association between problematic social media use, psychological distress, and insomnia // Internet Interventions. 2020. Vol. 21. P. 100345. doi: 10.1016/j.invent.2020.100345

[27] Ransing R, Ramalho R, Orsolini L, et al. Can COVID-19 related mental health issues be measured? Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2020;88:32–4. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.049

[28] Ransing R., Ramalho R., Orsolini L., et al. Can COVID-19 related mental health issues be measured? // Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2020. Vol. 88. P. 32–34. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.049

[29] Chen SX, Ng JCK, Hui BPH, et al. Dual impacts of coronavirus anxiety on mental health in 35 societies. Scientific Reports. 2021;11(1):8925. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-87771-1

[30] Chen S.X., Ng J.C.K., Hui B.P.H., et al. Dual impacts of coronavirus anxiety on mental health in 35 societies // Scientific Reports. 2021. Vol. 11, № 1. P. 8925. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-87771-1

[31] Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ‐9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2001;16(9):606–13. doi: 10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x

[32] Kroenke K., Spitzer R.L., Williams J.B. The PHQ‐9: validity of a brief depression severity measure // Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2001. Vol. 16, № 9. P. 606–613. doi: 10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x

[33] Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, et al. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2006;166(10):1092–7. doi: 10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092

[34] Spitzer R.L., Kroenke K., Williams J.B.W., et al. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7 // Archives of Internal Medicine. 2006. Vol. 166, № 10. P. 1092–1097. doi: 10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092

[35] Morin CM, Belleville G, Bélanger L, et al. The Insomnia Severity Index: psychometric indicators to detect insomnia cases and evaluate treatment response. Sleep. 2011;34(5):601–8. doi: 10.1093/sleep/34.5.601

[36] Morin C.M., Belleville G., Bélanger L., et al. The Insomnia Severity Index: psychometric indicators to detect insomnia cases and evaluate treatment response // Sleep. 2011. Vol. 34, № 5. P. 601–608. doi: 10.1093/sleep/34.5.601

[37] Lee SA. Replication analysis of the coronavirus anxiety scale. The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences. 2020;33:203–5. doi: 10.14744/dajpns.2020.00079

[38] Lee S.A. Replication analysis of the coronavirus anxiety scale // The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences. 2020. Vol. 33. P. 203–205. doi: 10.14744/dajpns.2020.00079

[39] Lee SA. How much “Thinking” about COVID-19 is clinically dysfunctional? Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2020;87:97–8. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.067

[40] Lee S.A. How much “Thinking” about COVID-19 is clinically dysfunctional? // Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2020. Vol. 87. P. 97–98. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.067

[41] Ahorsu DK, Lin C–Y, Imani V, et al. The Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Development and Initial Validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2022;20(3):1537–45. doi: 10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8

[42] Ahorsu D.K., Lin C.–Y., Imani V., et al. The Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Development and Initial Validation // International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2022. Vol. 20, № 3. P. 1537–1545. doi: 10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8

[43] WHO | Process of translation and adaptation of instruments [Internet]. Available at: https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/research_tools/translation/en/. Accessed: 2022 January 22.

[44] Bastien CH, Vallières A, Morin CM. Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index as an outcome measure for insomnia research. Sleep Medicine. 2001;2(4):297–307. doi: 10.1016/s1389-9457(00)00065-4

[45] Bastien C.H., Vallières A., Morin C.M. Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index as an outcome measure for insomnia research // Sleep Medicine. 2001. Vol. 2, № 4. P. 297–307. doi: 10.1016/s1389-9457(00)00065-4

[46] Mechili EA, Saliaj A, Kamberi F, et al. Is the mental health of young students and their family members affected during the quarantine period? Evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic in Albania. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 2021;28(3):317–25. doi: 10.1111/jpm.12672

[47] Mechili E.A., Saliaj A., Kamberi F., et al. Is the mental health of young students and their family members affected during the quarantine period? Evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic in Albania // Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 2021. Vol. 28, № 3. P. 317–325. doi: 10.1111/jpm.12672

[48] Kamberi F, Jaho J, Mechili EA, et al. Effect of Covid-19 pandemic on mental health among Albanian people residing in the country and abroad ― Implications for mental care. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing. 2020;34(6):507–12. doi: 10.1016/j.apnu.2020.08.003

[49] Kamberi F., Jaho J., Mechili E.A., et al. Effect of Covid-19 pandemic on mental health among Albanian people residing in the country and abroad ― Implications for mental care // Archives of Psychiatric Nursing. 2020. Vol. 34, № 6. P. 507–512. doi: 10.1016/j.apnu.2020.08.003

[50] Verma K. The mental health impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in India. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;53:102398. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102398

[51] Verma K. The mental health impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in India // Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020. Vol. 53. P. 102398. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102398

[52] Grover S, Sahoo S, Mehra A, et al. Psychological impact of COVID-19 lockdown: An online survey from India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;62(4):354–62. doi: 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_427_20

[53] Grover S., Sahoo S., Mehra A., et al. Psychological impact of COVID-19 lockdown: An online survey from India // Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020. Vol. 62, № 4. P. 354–362. doi: 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_427_20

[54] Agberotimi SF, Akinsola OS, Oguntayo R, et al. Interactions Between Socioeconomic Status and Mental Health Outcomes in the Nigerian Context Amid COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Study. Frontiers in Psychology. 2020;11:559819. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559819

[55] Agberotimi S.F., Akinsola O.S., Oguntayo R., et al. Interactions Between Socioeconomic Status and Mental Health Outcomes in the Nigerian Context Amid COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Study // Frontiers in Psychology. 2020. Vol. 11. P. 559819. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559819

[56] Olaseni AO, Akinsola OS, Agberotimi SF, et al. Psychological distress experiences of Nigerians during Covid-19 pandemic; the gender difference. Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 2020;2(1):100052. doi: 10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100052

[57] Olaseni A.O., Akinsola O.S., Agberotimi S.F., et al. Psychological distress experiences of Nigerians during Covid-19 pandemic; the gender difference // Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 2020. Vol. 2, № 1. P. 100052. doi: 10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100052

[58] Lahiri A, Jha SS, Acharya R, et al. Correlates of insomnia among the adults during COVID19 pandemic: evidence from an online survey in India. Sleep Medicine. 2021;77:66–73. doi: 10.1016/j.sleep.2020.11.020

[59] Lahiri A., Jha S.S., Acharya R., et al. Correlates of insomnia among the adults during COVID19 pandemic: evidence from an online survey in India // Sleep Medicine. 2021. Vol. 77. P. 66–73. doi: 10.1016/j.sleep.2020.11.020

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Dashi E., Vahdani B., Chepure A., Hayatudeen N., Kumari P., Farhang S., Ramalho R., Patil I., Majidi M., Ransing R., Metaj E., Baba Musami U., Fisayo A., Metu I., Ungratwar A., Rehman S., Alikaj V., Numbere T., Adiukwu F.