Grey water footprint for global energy demands

Abstract

With a Multi-Regional Input-Output model, this study quantifies global final energy demands’ grey water footprint (GWF) based on the latest available data. In 2009, 9.10 km³ of freshwater was required to dilute the pollutants generated along the life-cycle supply chain of global energy final demands to concentrations permitted by relevant environmental regulations. On a national level, final energy demands in China, USA, India, Japan, and Brazil required the largest GWF of 1.45, 1.19, 0.79, 0.51, and 0.45 km³ respectively, while European countries have the highest energy demands GWF per capita. From the producer perspective, the largest GWF was generated in BRIC countries, i.e., Russia (1.54 km³), China (1.35 km³), India (0.92 km³) and Brazil (0.56 km³) to support global final energy demands. Because of global trading activities, a country or region’s final energy demands also give rise to water pollutants beyond its territorial boundaries. Cyprus, Greece, Luxembourg, and Malta almost entirely rely on foreign water resources to dilute water pollutants generated to meet their final energy demands. Energy demands in BRIC countries have the least dependency on external water resources. On a global average, 56.9% of GWF for energy demands was generated beyond national boundaries. Energy demands in the global north are inducing water pollutions in the global south.

Keywords

water-energy nexus / water pollution / water footprint / multi-regional input-output analysis

References

[1] Cai B M, Zhang B, Bi J, Zhang W J, (2014). Energy’s thirst for water in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 11760–11768

[2] Cai B, Wang C, Zhang B (2017). Worse than imagined: unidentified virtual water in China. J Clean Prod, 196: 681–691

[3] Chapagain A K, Hoekstra A Y, Savenije H H G, Gautam R (2006). The water footprint of cotton consumption: an assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries. Ecol Econ, 60(1): 186–203

[4] Fthenakis V, Kim H C (2010). Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. electricity generation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 14(7): 2039–2048

[5] Gerbens-Leenes W, Hoekstra A Y, van der Meer T H (2009). The water footprint of bioenergy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 106(25): 10219–10223

[6] Gleick P (1994). Water and Energy. Annu Rev Energy Environ, 19(1): 267–299

[7] Hoekstra A Y, Chapagain A K, Aldaya M M, Mekonnen M M (2011) The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard. Earthscan. London, UK

[8] Holland R A, Scott K A, Florke M, Brown G, Ewers R M, Farmer E, Kapos V, Muggeridge A, Scharlemann J P W, Taylor G, Barrett J, Eigenbrod F (2015). Global impacts of energy demand on the freshwater resources of nations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 112(48): E6707–E6716

[9] International Energy Agency (IEA) (2012). World energy outlook. Paris, France

[10] Leontief W (1941) The Structure of the American Economy, 1919–1939 (2nd Edition). New York: Oxford University Press

[11] Liang Q M, Fan Y, Wei Y M (2007). Multi-regional input-output model for regional energy requirements and CO₂ emissions in China. Energ Policy, 35(3): 1685–1700

[12] Liao X, Hall J W, Eyre N (2016). Water use in China’s thermoelectric power sector. Glob Environ Change, 41: 142–152

[13] Liu C, Kroeze C, Hoekstra A Y, Gerbens-Leenes W (2012). Past and future trends in grey water footprints of anthropogenic nitrogen and phosphorus inputs to major world rivers. Ecol Indic, 18: 42–49

[14] Liu W, Antonelli M, Liu X, Yang H (2017). Towards improvement of grey water footprint assessment: with an illustration for global maize cultivation. J Clean Prod, 147: 1–9

[15] Macknick J, Newmark R, Heath G, Hallett K C (2012). Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies: a review of existing literature. Environ Res Lett, 7(4): 045802

[16] Marsh D M (2008) The water-energy nexus: a comprehensive analysis in the context of New South Wales. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree. Sydney: University of Technology

[17] Mekonnen M M, Gerbens-Leenes P W, Hoekstra A Y (2015). The consumptive water footprint of electricity and heat: a global assessment. Environ Sci Water Res Technol, 1(3): 285–297

[18] Mekonnen M M, Hoekstra A Y (2010a) The green, blue and grey water footprint of farm animals and animal products, Value of Water Research Report Series No.48, Volume I and II. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands

[19] Mekonnen M M, Hoekstra A Y (2010b) The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products. Value of Water Research Report Series No.47, Volume I and II. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands

[20] Mekonnen M M, Hoekstra A Y (2011a) National water footprint accounts: the green, blue and grey water footprint of production and consumption. Value of Water Research Report Series No.50, Volume I and II. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands

[21] Mekonnen M M, Hoekstra A Y (2011b) The water footprint of electricity from hydropower. Value of Water Research Report Series No.51. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands

[22] Mekonnen M M, Hoekstra A Y (2012) The blue water footprint of electricity from hydropower. Hydrol. Earth Sys. Sci. 16: 179–187

[23] Mekonnen, M.M., Hoekstra, A.Y. (2015) Global gray water footprint and water pollution levels related to anthropogenic nitrogen loads to fresh water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49. 12860–12868

[24] Meldrum J, Nettles-Anderson S, Heath G, Macknick J (2013). Life cycle water use for electricity generation: a review and harmonization of literature estimates. Environ Res Lett, 8(1): 015031

[25] Mielke E, Anadon L D, Narayanamurti V (2010) Water Consumption of Energy Resource Extraction, Processing, and Conversion. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School: Cambridge, MA, US

[26] Mishra V K, Upadhyaya A R, Pandey S K, Tripathi B D (2008). Heavy metal pollution induced due to coal mining effluent on surrounding aquatic ecosystem and its management through naturally occurring aquatic macrophytes. Bioresour Technol, 99(5): 930–936

[27] Nerini F F, Tomei J, To L S, Bisaga I, Parikh P, Black M, Borrion A, Spataru C, Broto V C, Anandarajah G, Milligan B, Mulugetta Y (2018). Mapping synergies and trade-offs between energy and the Sustainable Development Goals. Nat Energ, 3(1): 10–15

[28] Pan L Y, Liu P, Ma L W, Li Z (2012). A supply chain based assessment of water issues in the coal industry in China. Energy Policy, 48: 93–102

[29] Pellicer-Martínez F, Martínez-Paz J M (2016). Grey water footprint assessment at the river basin level: accounting method and case study in the Segura River Basin, Spain. Ecol Indic, 60: 1173–1183

[30] Peters G P, Hertwich E G (2008). CO₂ embodied in international trade with implications for global climate policy. Environ Sci Technol, 42(5): 1401–1407

[31] Rio Carrillo A M, Frei C (2009). Water: a key resource in energy production. Energ Policy, 37(11): 4303–4312

[32] Serrano A, Guan D, Duarte R, Paavola J (2016). Virtual water flows in the EU27: a consumption-based approach. J Ind Ecol, 20(3): 547–558

[33] Spang E S, Moomaw W R, Gallagher K S, Kirshen P H, Marks D H (2014). The water consumption of energy production: an international comparison. Environ Res Lett, 9(10): 105002

[34] United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Geneva

[35] Vassolo S, Doll P (2005). Global-scale gridded estimates of thermoelectric power and manufacturing water use. Water Resour Res, 41(4): W04010

[36] Wang L, Ding X, Wu X (2013). Blue and grey water footprint of textile industry in China. Water Sci Technol, 68(11): 2485–2491

[37] Wiedmann T (2009). A review of recent multi-region input-output models used for consumption-based emission and resource accounting. Ecol Econ, 69(2): 211–222

[38] Zeng Z, Liu J, Savenije H H (2013). A simple approach to assess water scarcity integrating water quantity and quality. Ecol Indic, 34: 441–449

[39] Zhang C, Anadon L D (2013). Life cycle water use of energy production and its environmental impacts in China. Environ Sci Technol, 47(24): 14459–14467

[40] Zhang Z, Yang H, Shi M (2011). Analyses of water footprint of Beijing in an interregional input-output framework. Ecol Econ, 70(12): 2494–2502

[41] Zhao X, Liu J, Liu Q, Tillotson M R, Guan D, Hubacek K (2015). Physical and virtual water transfers for regional water stress alleviation in China. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 112(4): 1031–1035

[42] Zhao X, Liu J, Yang H, Duarte R, Tillotson M R, Hubacek K (2016). Burden shifting of water quantity and quality stress from megacity Shanghai. Water Resour Res, 52(9): 6916–6927

[43] Zhi Y, Yang Z, Yin X, Hamilton P B, Zhang L (2015). Using gray water footprint to verify economic sectors’ consumption of assimilative capacity in a river basin: model and a case study in the Haihe River Basin, China. J Clean Prod, 92: 267–273

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2019 Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature