Conservation Status, Decline Factors, and Strategies for Globally Endangered Musk Deer (Moschus spp.) in China

Abstract

Amidst the global biodiversity crisis, conserving endangered species like musk deer (Moschus spp.) is crucial. China holds the highest musk deer diversity worldwide, with abundant populations, wide distribution, and significant musk production. We reviewed the morphology, population trends, distribution, conservation status, captive breeding, and related challenges of musk deer to inform targeted conservation strategies. Currently, wild musk deer populations are primarily distributed in western, central, and northeastern regions of China. Over the past seven decades, illegal hunting and habitat fragmentation have caused severe population declines, reducing most populations by over 97% since the 1950s. To alleviate pressure on wild populations and promote sustainable resource use, China initiated captive breeding of musk deer in 1958, resulting in a 5.6-fold increase in captive musk deer from the 1990s to the 2020s. However, challenges like serious diseases hinder further expansion of artificial musk production. Given the limitations of both in situ and ex situ conservation, it is advised to establish or optimize natural reserves in musk deer habitat. Strengthening law enforcement, population monitoring, ecological research, captive breeding, reintroduction, and public awareness is essential for global musk deer conservation.

Keywords

conservation status / conservation strategies / endangered causes / global biodiversity / musk deer

References

[1] Bao, S., K. An, C. Liu, et al. 2020. “Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus Isolated From Diseased Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus sifanicus).” Viruses 12, no. 8: 897.

[2] Cai, Y., J. Yang, J. Wang, et al. 2020. “Changes in the Population Genetic Structure of Captive Forest Musk Deer (Moschus berezovskii) With the Increasing Number of Generation Under Closed Breeding Conditions.” Animals 10, no. 2: 255.

[3] Cao, H., Z. Li, T. Jin, et al. 2024. “Maslinic Acid Supplementation Prevents di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate-Induced Apoptosis via PRDX6 in Peritubular Myoid Cells of Chinese Forest Musk Deer.” Journal of Environmental Sciences 143: 47–59.

[4] Dong, W., W. Zhao, and C. Liu. 2001. “Research Progress of Musk.” Special Wild Economic Animal and Plant Research, no. 2: 48–58.

[5] Fan, J., X. Zheng, H. Wang, et al. 2019. “Analysis of Genetic Diversity and Population Structure in Three Forest Musk Deer Captive Populations With Different Origins.” G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics 9, no. 4: 1037–1044.

[6] Fan, Z., W. Li, J. Jin, et al. 2018. “The Draft Genome Sequence of Forest Musk Deer (Moschus berezovskii).” GigaScience 7, no. 4: giy038.

[7] Gu, C., S. Liu, G. Wang, M. Li, Z. Liu, and H. Sheng. 1998. “Current Situation of Siberian Musk Deer Resources in Dabie Mountain, Anhui Province.” Chinese Journal of Wildlife 19, no. 1: 14–15.

[8] Guo, J., X. Chen, Y. Ju, et al. 2001. “Habitat Selection of Musk Deer in Yele Nature Reserve.” Chinese Journal of Applied and Environmental Biology 7, no. 2: 183–185.

[9] Hao, Y., J. Wu, and J. Wang. 1990. “Some Ecological Data of Siberian Musk Deer in Pangquangou Reserve, Shanxi Province.” Sichuan Journal of Zoology, no. 2: 44–46.

[10] Hao, Y., J. Wu, J. Wang, and J. Wang. 1991. “Ecological Study of Siberian Musk Deer in Pangquanggou Nature Reserve.” Chinese Journal of Ecology 10, no. 6: 16–18.

[11] Harris, R. 2016. Moschus chrysogaster. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T13895A61977139. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T13895A61977139.en.

[12] He, J., 2021. Screening and Preliminary Identification of Host Cellular Proteins Interacting With VP60 Protein of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus Isolated From Moschus chrysogaster. Doctoral diss., Gansu Agricultural University, Gansu Province, China.

[13] Hu, B., Y. Yang, S. Hu, and L. Zhu. 1997. “New Progress in the Study of Musk.” Information on Traditional Chinese Medicine, no. 2: 11–12.

[14] Hu, D., Y. Deng, H. Xu, and Y. Liu. 2019. “A Resource Survey of Moschus berezouskii in Sichuan Baishuihe National Nature Reserve.” Journal of Sichuan Forestry Science and Technology 40, no. 6: 105–109.

[15] Hu, X. L., G. Liu, Y. T. Wei, et al. 2018. “Regional and Seasonal Effects on the Gastrointestinal Parasitism of Captive Forest Musk Deer.” Acta Tropica 177: 1–8.

[16] Hu, Z. 2005. Study on the Population Retoration Ecology of Moschus berezovskii in Zibaishan Nature Reserve, Feng County, Shaanxi, China. Doctoral diss., East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.

[17] Huang, J., Y. Z. Li, P. Li, et al. 2013. “Genetic Quality of the Miyaluo Captive Forest Musk Deer (Moschus berezovskii) Population as Assessed by Microsatellite Loci.” Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 47: 25–30.

[18] Jiang, F., P. Song, D. Liu, et al. 2023. “Marked Variations in Gut Microbial Diversity, Functions, and Disease Risk Between Wild and Captive Alpine Musk Deer.” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 107, no. 17: 5517–5529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-023-12675-1.

[19] Jiang, F., J. Zhang, H. Gao, et al. 2020. “Musk Deer (Moschus spp.) Face Redistribution to Higher Elevations and Latitudes Under Climate Change in China.” Science of the Total Environment 704: 135335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135335.

[20] Jiang, Y. 1997. “Number Estimate of Musk Deer (Muschus berezovskii) of Shaanxi Province.” Journal of Shaanxi Normal University 25: 127–130.

[21] Jiang, Z., J. Jiang, Y. Wang, et al. 2016. “Red List of China's Vertebrates.” Biodiversity Science 24, no. 5: 500–551.

[22] Kalyaanamoorthy, S., B. Q. Minh, T. K. F. Wong, A. von Haeseler, and L. S. Jermiin. 2017. “ModelFinder: Fast Model Selection for Accurate Phylogenetic Estimates.” Nature Methods 14, no. 6: 587–589. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.4285.

[23] Kang, F. 2003. “Study on Numerical Changes of Moschus chrysogaster Population on Xinglong Mountain.” Journal of Gansu Forestry Science and Technology 28, no. 4: 19–22.

[24] Katoh, K., and D. M. Standley. 2013. “MAFFT Multiple Sequence Alignment Software Version 7: Improvements in Performance and Usability.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 30, no. 30: 772–780.

[25] Lei, X. 2015. “Analysis of the Law of on Population Quantity Changes of the Wild Animals Martes zibellina, Moschus moschiferus, Tetrao parvirostris in Ling Feng Nature Reserve.” Forest Investigation Design 2: 77–79.

[26] Li, L., X. Huang, G. Liu, et al. 2012. “The Status of Captive Population of Musk Deer and Analysis of Its Farming Development in China.” Sichuan Journal of Zoology 31, no. 3: 492–496.

[27] Li, X. 1981. “On a New Species of Musk-Deer From China.” Zoological Research 2, no. 2: 157–161.

[28] Li, Y., X. Hu, S. Yang, et al. 2017. “Comparative Analysis of the Gut Microbiota Composition Between Captive and Wild Forest Musk Deer.” Frontiers in Microbiology 8: 1705.

[29] Li, Y., X. Hu, S. Yang, et al. 2018. “Comparison Between the Fecal Bacterial Microbiota of Healthy and Diarrheic Captive Musk Deer.” Frontiers in Microbiology 9: 300.

[30] Liu, C., T. Hong, L. Yu, Y. Chen, X. Dong, and Z. Ren. 2024. “Single-Nucleus Multiomics Unravels the Genetic Mechanisms Underlying Musk Secretion in Chinese Forest Musk Deer (Moschus berezovskii).” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 279, no. pt. 1: 135050.

[31] Liu, H., Y. Dong, L. Wang, Y. Zhou, X. Xing, and F. Yang. 2017. “Research Progress on Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Deer in China.” Chinese Journal of Wildlife 38, no. 3: 514–523.

[32] Liu, K., L. Xie, M. Deng, X. Zhang, J. Luo, and X. Li. 2021. “Zoology, Chemical Composition, Pharmacology, Quality Control and Future Perspective of Musk (Moschus): A Review.” Chinese Medicine 16, no. 1: 46.

[33] Liu, W., and J. Tong. 2005. “Analysis on Protection and Utilization of Musk Deer Resources in China.” Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 7, no. 4: 28–32.

[34] Liu, W., N. Yue, and H. Zhang. 2006. “Present Situation and Analysis of Shaanxi Domestic Musk Deer Resources.” Journal of Shaanxi Normal University (Natural Science Edition) 34: 183–187.

[35] Lü, H., C. Zhao, Z. Li, et al. 2000. “Discussion on Sustainable Utilization of Wildlife Resources in Helan Mountain.” Journal of Ningxia Agriculture and Forestry Science and Technology 1: 31–33.

[36] Lü, X., J. Qiao, X. Wu, and L. Su. 2009. “A Review of Mainly Affected on Musk-Deer Diseases: Purulent, Respiratory System and Parasitic Diseases.” Journal of Economic Animal 13, no. 2: 104–107.

[37] Luo, R. 1993. Zoology of Guizhou Province, China. Guizhou Science and Technology Press, Guiyang City (in Chinese).

[38] Ma, Y. 1986. Zoology of Helongjiang Province, China. Heilongjiang Science and Technology Press, Harbin city (in Chinese).

[39] Meng, X., G. C. Perkins, Q. Yang, Z. Feng, Z. Meng, and H. Xu. 2008. “Relationship Between Estrus Cycles and Behavioral Durations of Captive Female Alpine Musk Deer.” Integrative Zoology 3, no. 2: 143–148.

[40] Murali, G., T. Iwamura, S. Meiri, and U. Roll. 2023. “Future Temperature Extremes Threaten Land Vertebrates.” Nature 615, no. 7952: 461–467.

[41] National Forestry Administration. 2009. China Key Terrestrial Wildlife Resources Survey. China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing (in Chinese).

[42] National Forestry and Grassland Administration. 2025. First Confirmed Record of Black Musk Deer (Moschus fuscus) in Sichuan. https://www.forestry.gov.cn/lyj/1/dzwzbh/20250711/633868.html.

[43] Nguyen, L. T., H. A. Schmidt, A. von Haeseler, and B. Q. Minh. 2015. “IQ-TREE: A Fast and Effective Stochastic Algorithm for Estimating Maximum-Likelihood Phylogenies.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 32, no. 1: 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msu300.

[44] Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. 1989. Annals of Qinghai Economic Fauna in China. Qinghai People's Publishing House, Xining city (in Chinese).

[45] Nyambayar, B., H. Mix, and K. Tsytsulina 2015. Moschus moschiferus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T13897A61977573. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T13897A61977573.en.

[46] Pan, T., H. Wang, C. Hu, et al. 2015. “Species Delimitation in the Genus Moschus (Ruminantia: Moschidae) and Its High-Plateau Origin.” PLoS One 10, no. 8: e0134183.

[47] Peng, J., J. Peng, Y. Deng, et al. 2018. “Estimating Population Size of Forest Musk Deer (Moschus berezovskii) in Chongqing Jinfoshan National Nature Reserve.” Forest Science and Technology, no. 4: 30–32.

[48] Pereira, H. M., I. S. Martins, I. M. D. Rosa, et al. 2024. “Global Trends and Scenarios for Terrestrial Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services From 1900 to 2050.” Science 384, no. 6694: 458–465. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adn3441.

[49] Qi, N., W. Duan, Y. Li, et al. 2020. “Research Progress on the Pharmacological Action of Muscone. Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Materia Medica-World.” Science and Technology 22, no. 8: 3042–3047.

[50] Qi, W. H., L. F. Hu, Y. J. Gu, et al. 2024. “Integrated mRNA-miRNA Transcriptome Profiling of Blood Immune Responses Potentially Related to Pulmonary Fibrosis in Forest Musk Deer.” Frontiers in Immunology 15: 1404108.

[51] Sharief, A., R. Dutta, H. Singh, et al. 2023. “Environmental Predictors May Change at Fine Scale Habitat Suitability Modelling: Implications for Conservation of Kashmir Musk Deer in Three Protected Areas of Uttarakhand, India.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 30, no. 34: 82895–82905.

[52] Sheng, H. 1996. “Current Situation of China's Musk Deer Resources and Rescue Measures.” Chinese Journal of Wildlife, no. 3: 10–12.

[53] Sheng, H., and Z. Liu, 2007. Chinese Musk Deer. Shanghai Science and Technology Press, Shanghai (in Chinese).

[54] Singh, P. B., J. R. Khatiwada, P. Saud, and Z. Jiang. 2019. “mtDNA Aanalysis Confirms the Endangered Kashmir Musk Deer Extends Its Range to Nepal.” Scientific Reports 9, no. 1: 4895.

[55] Su, L., Q. Hou, L. Che, J. Tang, and X. Wu. 2011. “Prospects of Artificial Musk Deer Farming in Shaanxi Province.” Shaanxi Journal of Agricultural Sciences 57, no. 2: 159–161.

[56] Sun, G. 1979. “A Preliminary Study on the Siberian Musk Deer in Greater Khingan Mountains.” Journal of Qiqihar University: 76–91.

[57] Sun, X., R. Cai, X. Jin, et al. 2018. “Blood Transcriptomics of Captive Forest Musk Deer (Moschus berezovskii) and Possible Associations With the Immune Response to Abscesses.” Scientific Reports 8, no. 1: 599.

[58] Sun, Y. 2018. A Comparative Study on the Intestinal Flora of Wild and Captive Musk Deer in Winter Based on High-throughput Sequencing. Doctoral diss., Northeast Forestry University, Heilongjiang Province, China.

[59] Tang, J., F. Li, Y. Wang, and W. Liu. 2011. “Epidemiological Survey on Suppurate Disease Among Musk Deer in Shaanxi Province.” Special Wild Economic Animal and Plant Research 33, no. 4: 63–65.

[60] Tang, J., L. Suo, F. Li, C. Yang, K. Bian, and Y. Wang. 2022. “ITRAQ-Based Quantitative Proteomics Analysis of Forest Musk Deer With Pneumonia.” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 9: 1012276.

[61] Tang, Z. S., Y. R. Liu, Y. Lv, et al. 2018. “Quality Markers of Animal Medicinal Materials: Correlative Analysis of Musk Reveals Distinct Metabolic Changes Induced by Multiple Factors.” Phytomedicine 44: 258–269.

[62] Tilman, D., M. Clark, D. R. Williams, K. Kimmel, S. Polasky, and C. Packer. 2017. “Future Threats to Biodiversity and Pathways to Their Prevention.” Nature 546, no. 7656: 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22900.

[63] Timmins, R. J., and J. W. Duckworth. 2015a. Moschus cupreus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T136750A61979453. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T136750A61979453.en.

[64] Timmins, R. J., and J. W. Duckworth. 2015b. Moschus leucogaster. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T13901A61977764. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T13901A61977764.en.

[65] Wang, J., J. Sun, T. Xu, et al. 2020. “Population Distribution, Quantitative Characteristics and Influencing Factors of the Wild Alpine Musk Deer in Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province.” Acta Ecologica Sinica 40, no. 21: 7997–8004.

[66] Wang, J., T. Zhang, C. Zhu, and D. Zhu. 1990. “Preliminary Analysis of Forest Musk Deer Death.” Journal of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, no. 2: 36–39.

[67] Wang, Q. 1990. Zoology of Anhui Province, China. Anhui Science and Technology Press, Hefei City (in Chinese).

[68] Wang, X., 1991. Vertebrate Fauna of Gansu Province. Gansu Science and Technology Press, Lanzhou city (in Chinese).

[69] Wang, Y., and R. Harris. 2015a. Moschus berezovskii (Errata Version Published in 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T13894A103431781. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T13894A61976926.en.

[70] Wang, Y., and R. Harris. 2015b . Moschus fuscus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T13896A61977357. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T13896A61977357.en.

[71] Wang, Y., and R. B. Harris. 2015c. Moschus anhuiensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T136643A61979276. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T136643A61979276.en.

[72] Wang, Y., and J. Hu. 1991. “A Teaching Model for the Classification of Forest Musk Deer (Moschus berezovskii) and Alpine Musk Deer (M. sifanicus).” Journal of Neijiang Normal University 2: 34–36.

[73] Wei, F., W. Wang, G. Yang, and J. Hu. 1995. “Preliminary Analysis of Population Density of Forest Musk Deer in Fengding Nature Reserve of Mabian, Sichuan Province. Sichuan.” Journal of Zoology 2: 66–67.

[74] Wei, F., Q. Yang, Y. Wu, et al. 2021. “Catalogue of Mammals in China (2021).” Acta Theriologica Sinica 41, no. 5: 487–501.

[75] Wen, Y. 2018. “Analysis of Current Situation and Prospect of Musk Deer Breeding Industry in Shaanxi Province.” Rural Economy and Science-Technology 29, no. 20: 35–36.

[76] Wu, J., and W. Wang. 2006. The Musk Deer of China. The China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing (in Chinese).

[77] Xiao, C., L. Yi, G. Meng, and S. Ha. 2019. “Advances in the Origin and Evolution and Genetic Diversity of Moschidae.” Journal of Domestic Animal Ecology 40, no. 8: 8–13.

[78] Xiao, Y. 2008. Research on Habitat Fragmentation of Forest Musk Deer in Fengxian, Shaanxi Province Based on 3S Technology. Doctoral diss., East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.

[79] Yang, Q., X. Meng, L. Xia, and Z. Feng. 2003. “Conservation Status and Causes of Decline of Musk Deer (Moschus spp.) in China.” Biological Conservation 109, no. 3: 333–342.

[80] Zhang, D., F. Gao, I. Jakovlić, et al. 2020. “PhyloSuite: An Integrated and Scalable Desktop Platform for Streamlined Molecular Sequence Data Management and Evolutionary Phylogenetics Studies.” Molecular Ecology Resources 20: 348–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-0998.13096.

[81] Zhang, W., S. Wang, Y. Li, et al. 2015. “Population Status of Siberian Musk Deer in Hanma National Nature Reserve, Inner Mongolia.” Inner Mongolia Forestry Investigation and Design 38, no. 4: 96–98.

[82] Zhao, K. L., Y. Liu, X. Y. Zhang, P. Palahati, H. N. Wang, and B. S. Yue. 2011. “Detection and Characterization of Antibiotic-Resistance Genes in Arcanobacterium Pyogenes Strains From Abscesses of Forest Musk Deer.” Journal of Medical Microbiology 60, no. pt. 12: 1820–1826.

[83] Zhou, C., W. Zhang, Q. Wen, et al. 2019. “Comparative Genomics Reveals the Genetic Mechanisms of Musk Secretion and Adaptive Immunity in Chinese Forest Musk Deer.” Genome Biology and Evolution 11, no. 4: 1019–1032.

[84] Zhu, C. 1991. “Preliminary Report on Parasitic Infection of Forest Musk Deer in Zhenping Musk Deer Farm, Shaanxi Province.” Journal of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, no. 3: 26–28.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). Wildlife Letters published by Northeast Forestry University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.