Landscape structure, hydrological ecosystem services, and regional resilience: A GIS-based vegetation plot assessment of the Panama Canal Watershed, Panama

Abstract

The Panama Canal watershed represents a globally strategic socio-ecological system where forest integrity underpins hydrological stability, biodiversity, and infrastructure functionality. In this study, we integrated vegetation plot analysis, GIS-based landscape metrics, and a composite Ecological Resilience Index (ERI) to assess spatial patterns of ecological resilience across primary forest, secondary forest, agro-mosaic, and peri-urban land covers. Vegetation plot data revealed that primary forests exhibit the highest species richness, basal area, canopy height, and structural complexity, whereas agro-mosaic and peri-urban areas are highly fragmented with reduced structural integrity. GIS-derived metrics demonstrated that contiguous primary forest cores and riverine corridors sustain high landscape connectivity (CONNECT index = 0.71) and function as critical dispersal pathways. The ERI spatial surface identified hotspots of high resilience (>0.75) within protected forest interiors and riparian zones, while anthropogenically modified edges exhibited significantly lower resilience (<0.40). Statistical analyses confirmed strong positive correlations between ERI and patch size (r = 0.68, p < 0.001) and negative correlations with edge density (r = −0.59, p < 0.001). These results emphasize that ecological resilience is spatially heterogeneous and strongly dependent on landscape configuration, structural integrity, and functional connectivity. The integrated framework provides a robust tool for resilience-based planning, highlighting the importance of conserving contiguous forest cores, maintaining riparian corridors, and restoring degraded patches to support biodiversity, ecosystem services, and watershed sustainability.

Keywords

Urban and Peri-Urban ecological resilience / GIS / Panama Canal watershed / forest connectivity / landscape metrics / ERI / tropical forest / socio-ecological system

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