Circular economy in Singapore: waste management, food and agriculture, energy, and transportation

i

This article has been updated. A Correction to this article was published on .

i

The Original Article was published on

i

The Original Article was published on

i

This article has been updated

i

This article was retracted on

i

This article has been updated

Abstract

Singapore, as a small but advanced urban economy, has achieved a high-quality living environment and has become an example of a high-density and sustainable city. To maintain that status, Singapore has set a goal of achieving net zero carbon emissions by mid-century and reducing waste sent to landfills by 30% by 2030. To achieve this goal, the Government has laid out a comprehensive plan for implementing a circular economy model across all economic sectors. It includes a set of measures tailored to its unique city-state conditions that will necessarily require the joint effort of authorities, industry, companies, academia, and citizens. This article reviewed and analyzed the strategies and policies that Singapore has devised to implement such a model in four sectors identified as the highest priority by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Economic Community: waste management, food and agriculture, energy, and transportation. The analysis aimed to provide information to close the gap between aspirations and reality by identifying factors that allow progress toward planned objectives, as well as externalities and barriers that act in the opposite direction. For this endeavor, a gap analysis was carried out to look into the interconnections between the natural environment, regulatory framework and policies, governance, infrastructure, technology and innovation, and societal habits. In general, the institutional framework necessary for the transition into a resilient and resource-efficient nation is already in place, while enforcement and monitoring mechanisms to assess progress are under construction. Singapore has learned how to develop policies that are flexible and can adapt to technological, economic, and social changes, as well as threats posed by climate change, and unexpected challenges. Still, success will be determined by Singaporeans’ ability to change their work-life balance paradigm for their own sake and happiness.

Keywords

sustainability / environmental resilience / resource-efficient / net zero emissions / zero waste

CHANGE HISTORY

A Correction to this paper has been published:
https://doi.org

The Retraction Note was updated to reflect reception of statements of disagreement from all authors.

This article has been retracted.Please see the Retraction Notice for more detail:
https://doi.org

References

[1] Lim WD, Tan GH (2018) A Resilient Singapore . Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities Singapore. Available from: https://www.clc.gov.sg/research-publications/publications/books/view/a-resilient-singapore.

[2] Public Utilities Board (PUB) (2018) Our water, our future. Available from: https://www.pub.gov.sg/resources/publications.

[3] Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) (2019) Zero Waste Masterplan Singapore. Available from: https://www.towardszerowaste.gov.sg.

[4] Singapore Government (2021) Singapore Green Plan 2030. Available from: https://www.greenplan.gov.sg.

[5] Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) (2023) GreenGov.SG Report for financial year 2022. Available from: https://www.mse.gov.sg/files/resources/greengovsg-report-fy2022.pdf.

[6] Secretariat ASEAN (2021) Framework for circular economy for the ASEAN Economic Community. Available from: https://asean.org.

[7] Department of Statistics Singapore (DOS) (2023) Population trends. Available from: https://www.singstat.gov.sg.

[8] Hartmann D, Zagato L, Gala P, et al. (2021) Why did some countries catch-up, while others got stuck in the middle? Stages of productive sophistication and smart industrial policies. Struct Chang Econ Dyn 58: 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.04.007

[9] World Bank (2024) GDP per Capita (Current US$) Data-World Bank open data. Available from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD.

[10] Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) (2019) Master Plan 2019. Available from: https://www.ura.gov.sg/Corporate.

[11] Housing and Development Board (HDB) (2019) Green Towns Programme. Available from: https://www.hdb.gov.sg.

[12] Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR), Ministry of National Development (MND) (2015) Sustainable Singapore Blueprint 2015. Available from: https://www.nccs.gov.sg.

[13] Gaw LYF, Yee ATK, Richards DR (2019) A high-resolution map of Singapore’s terrestrial ecosystems. Data 4: 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/data4030116

[14] Richards DR, Edwards PJ (2017) Quantifying street tree regulating ecosystem services using Google Street View. Ecol Indic 77: 31-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.01.028

[15] Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) (1992) The Singapore Green Plan: Action Programmes.

[16] Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) (2002) The Singapore Green Plan 2012.

[17] Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) (2006) The Singapore Green Plan 2012, 2006 edition.

[18] Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR), and Ministry of National Development (MND) (2009) A lively and liveable Singapore: Strategies for sustainable growth. Available from: https://www.nccs.gov.sg.

[19] Singapore Attorney General’s Chambers (2021) Environmental Protection and Management Act 1999. Available from: https://sso.agc.gov.sg/act/epma1999.

[20] United Nations, Paris Agreement, United Nations Climate Change, Twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties, 2015. Available from: https://unfccc.int.

[21] United Nations, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, United Nations, General Assembly, Seventieth session, 2015. Available from: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment.

[22] Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (MSE) (2020) Singapore’s Climate Action Plan. Available from: https://www.mse.gov.sg/resources.

[23] Singapore Attorney General’s Chambers (2021) Resource Sustainability Act 2019. Available from: https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/RSA2019.

[24] Iacovidou E, Hahladakis JN, Purnell P (2021) A systems thinking approach to understanding the challenges of achieving the circular economy. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28: 24785-24806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11725-9

[25] National Environment Agency (NEA) (2023) Waste statistics and overall recycling. Available from: https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/waste-management/waste-statistics-and-overall-recycling.

[26] Recycle Right Citizen’s Workgroup (2019) Nine citizen proposals to improve household recycling in Singapore. Available from: https://www.towardszerowaste.gov.sg.

[27] National Environment Agency (NEA) (2023) Chemical and Hazardous Waste-Basel Convention. Available from: https://www.nea.gov.sg.

[28] National Environment Agency (NEA) (2019) Integrated Waste Management Facility (IWMF). Available from: https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/waste-management.

[29] Tan E (2018) Enough trash talk, Singapore. It’s time to stop passing the buck on plastics. Eco-Business. Available from: https://www.eco-business.com/opinion/enough-trash-talk-singapore-its-time-to-stop-passing-the-buck-on-plastics.

[30] Singapore Environment Council (2018) Consumer plastic and plastic resource ecosystem in Singapore. Available from: https://sec.org.sg.

[31] Deliveroo (2021) Food delivery platforms deliver more than just food; serves up happiness in a time of uncertainty. Available from: https://sg.deliveroo.news/news/food-delivery-survey-2021.html.

[32] Singapore Management University (SMU) (2021) Takeaways beats deliver as preferred way to get food here. Available from: https://ise.smu.edu.sg/resources/press.

[33] Elangovan N (2020) Singapore households generated additional 1334 tonnes of plastic waste during circuit breaker: Study. Available from: https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/singapore-households-generated-additional-1334-tonnes-plastic-waste-during-circuit-breaker.

[34] Khoo HH (2019) LCA of plastic waste recovery into recycled materials, energy and fuels in Singapore. Resour Conserv Recycl 145: 67-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.02.010

[35] Wagner M, Monclús L, Arp HPH, et al. (2024) State of the science on plastic chemicals - Identifying and addressing chemicals and polymers of concern. Zenodo. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10701706.

[36] Nature (2022) How fast fashion can cut its staggering environmental impact. Nature 609: 653-654. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-02914-2

[37] Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA), National Environmental Agency (NEA) (2017) Food waste minimization guidebook for food retail and establishments. Available from: https://www.towardszerowaste.gov.sg/foodwaste.

[38] Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA), National Environmental Agency (NEA) (2017) Food waste minimization guidebook for supermarkets. Available from: https://www.towardszerowaste.gov.sg/foodwaste.

[39] Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA), National Environmental Agency (NEA) (2017) Food waste minimization guidebook for food manufacturing establishments. Available from: https://www.towardszerowaste.gov.sg/foodwaste.

[40] National Environment Agency (NEA) (2017) Love your food-A handy guide to reducing food wastage and saving money. Available from: https://www.towardszerowaste.gov.sg/foodwaste.

[41] National Environment Agency (NEA), Singapore’s National Water Agency (PUB) (2019) Co-digestion of food waste and used water sludge enhanced biogas for greater energy generation. Available from: https://www.nea.gov.sg.

[42] Singapore Food Agency (SFA) (2022) Singapore food statistics. Available from: https://www.sfa.gov.sg.

[43] Deloitte (2019) Environmental impact of food in Singapore. Available from: https://www.ecosperity.sg/en/ideas/environmental-impact-of-food-in-singapore.html.

[44] Li M, Jia N, Lenzen M, et al. (2022) Global food-miles account for nearly 20% of total food-systems emissions. Nat Food 3: 445-453. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w

[45] Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (MSE) (2022) Key environmental statistics 2021. Available from: https://www.mse.gov.sg/resources.

[46] Our World in Data (2023) Per capita consumption-based CO₂ emissions-Global Carbon Project . Available from: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/consumption-co2-per-capita.

[47] Singapore Food Agency (SFA) Growing our food future, Annual Report 2020/21. Available from: https://www.sfa.gov.sg.

[48] Goldstein Market Intelligence (2021) Singapore rice industry: market analysis, size, trends share, key players, demand & growth, by distribution channel with COVID-19 impact. Available from: https://www.goldsteinresearch.com/report/singapore-rice-industry-outlook.

[49] Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA) (2019) Staying true to our values, Annual Report 2018/2019. Available from: https://www.sfa.gov.sg.

[50] IndexMundi (2022) Agriculture production, supply, and distribution. Available from: https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture.

[51] Hawes JK, Goldstein BP, Newell JP, et al. (2024) Comparing the carbon footprints of urban and conventional agriculture. Nat Cities 1: 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44284-023-00023-3

[52] Shen Y, Ma K, Yue GH (2021) Status, challenges and trends of aquaculture in Singapore. Aquaculture 533: 736210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.736210

[53] Bianchi M, Hallström E, Parker RWR, et al. (2022) Assessing seafood nutritional diversity together with climate impacts informs more comprehensive dietary advice. Commun Earth Environ 3: 188. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00516-4

[54] Lim HS, Jiang J, Tan YW (2020) The Singapore aquaculture industry-contributing to Singapore’s food security. Word Aquaculture Society Magazine. Available from: https://www.was.org/articles/The-Singapore-Aquaculture-Industry-Contributing-to-Singapores-Food-Security.aspx.

[55] National Parks Board (NPark) (2017) Gardening with edibles. Available from: https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardening/gardening-with-edibles.

[56] Camilleri AR, Larrick RP, Hossain S, et al. (2019) Consumers underestimate the emissions associated with food but are aided by labels. Nat Clim Chang 9: 53-58. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0354-z

[57] Health Promotion Board (HPB) (2024) Healthier choice symbol. Available from: https://hpb.gov.sg/food-beverage/healthier-choice-symbol.

[58] Chang Y (2015) Energy and environmental policy. Singapore Econ Rev 60: 1550039. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0217590815500393

[59] Energy Market Authority (EMA) (2023) Singapore energy statistics 2023. Available from: https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics.

[60] Su B, Goh T, Ang BW, et al. (2022) Energy consumption and energy efficiency trends in Singapore: The case of a meticulously planned city. Energy Policy 161: 112732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112732

[61] Department of Statistics Singapore (DOS) (2019) Report on the household expenditure survey 2017/18. Available from: https://www.singstat.gov.sg.

[62] Ang BW, Goh T (2018) Bridging the gap between energy-to-GDP ratio and composite energy intensity index. Energy Policy: 119: 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.038

[63] National Environmental Agency (NEA) (2022) Singapore’s fifth national communication and fifth biennial update report. Available from: https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/climate-change-energy-efficiency/climate-change/national-communications-and-biennial-update-reports.

[64] Energy Market Authority (EMA) (2022) Beyond the current. Available from: https://www.beyondthecurrent.gov.sg.

[65] Ye JY, Reindl T, Aberle AG, et al. (2014) Performance degradation of various PV module technologies in tropical Singapore. IEEE J Photovolt 4: 1288-1294. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2014.2338051

[66] Mekhilef S, Saidur R, Kamalisarvestani M (2012) Effect of dust, humidity, and air velocity on efficiency of photovoltaic cells. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 16: 2920-2925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.012

[67] Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore (SERIS) (2020) Update of the solar photovoltaic (PV) roadmap for Singapore. Available from: https://www.seris.nus.edu.sg.

[68] Tan C (2018) Singapore could see 5,000 tonnes of solar panel waste in next 2 years. Straits Times. Available from: https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/environment/singapore-could-see-5000-tonnes-of-solar-panel-waste-in-next-2-years.

[69] Patil RA, Shabunko V, Ramakrishna S (2021) Renewable energy and circular economy: Application of life cycle costing to building integrated solar energy systems in Singapore, In: Liu, L., Ramakrishna, S. Author, An Introduction to Circular Economy , Singapore: Springer, 201-208. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8510-4-11

[70] Kosorić V, Lau SK, Tablada A, et al. (2018) General model of Photovoltaic (PV) integration into existing public high-rise residential buildings in Singapore-Challenges and benefits. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 91: 70-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.087

[71] Luo W, Khoo YS, Kumar A, et al. (2018) A comparative life-cycle assessment of photovoltaic electricity generation in Singapore by multicrystalline silicon technologies. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 174: 157-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.08.040

[72] Almeida RM, Schmitt R, Grodsky SM, et al. (2022) Floating solar power could help fight climate change-let’s get it right. Nature 606: 246-249. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-01525-1

[73] Public Utilities Board (PUB) Sustainability report FY2020/21. Available from: https://www.pub.gov.sg.

[74] Sembcorp Energy Singapore (2022) Sembcorp Tengeh Floating Solar Farm. Available from: https://www.sembcorpenergy.com.sg.

[75] Energy Market Authority (EMA) (2023) Our clean energy future. Available from: https://www.ema.gov.sg.

[76] Energy Market Authority (EMA) (2022) Charting the energy transition to 2050. Available from: https://www.ema.gov.sg.

[77] Wong R, Onn LP (2022) The intractable challenges facing energy trade in Southeast Asia. ISEAS Perspective 19. Available from: https://www.iseas.edu.sg/category/articles-commentaries/iseas-perspective.

[78] Yong ML (2022) Transboundary environmental publics and hydropower governance in the Mekong River Basin: a contested politics of place, scale and temporality. Environ Policy Gov 32: 292-304. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1973

[79] Middleton C, Dore J (2015) Transboundary water and electricity governance in mainland Southeast Asia: Linkages, disjunctures and implications. Int J Water Gov 3: 93-120. https://doi.org/10.7564/14-IJWG54

[80] Ziv G, Baran E, Nam S, et al. (2012) Trading-off fish biodiversity, food security, and hydropower in the Mekong River Basin. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109: 5609-5614. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.120142310

[81] Pokhrel Y, Burbano M, Roush J, et al. (2018) A review of the integrated effects of changing climate, land use, and dams on Mekong River hydrology. Water 10: 266. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10030266

[82] Hecht JS, Lacombe G, Arias ME, et al. (2019) Hydropower dams of the Mekong River basin: A review of their hydrological impacts. J Hydrol 568: 285-300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.045

[83] Soukhaphon A, Baird IG, Hogan ZS (2021) The impacts of hydropower dams in the Mekong River Basin: A review. Water 13: 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13030265

[84] International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) (2020) Green hydrogen cost reduction: Scaling up electrolysers to meet the 1.5 °C climate goal. Available from: https://www.irena.org.

[85] Jain IP (2009) Hydrogen the fuel for 21st century. Int J Hydrog Energy 34: 7368-7378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.05.093

[86] Edwards PP, Kuznetsov VL, David WIF, et al. (2008) Hydrogen and fuel cells: Towards a sustainable energy future. Energy Policy 36: 4356-4362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.09.036

[87] Fernandez JR, Garcia S, Sanz-Perez ES (2020) CO₂ capture and utilization editorial . Ind Eng Chem Res 59: 6767-6772. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.0c01643

[88] Bui M, Adjiman CS, Bardow A, et al. (2018) Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward. Energy Environ Sci 11: 1062-1176. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EE02342A

[89] Hand E (2023) Hidden hydrogen. Science 379: 630-636. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adh1477

[90] Energy Market Authority (EMA) (2022) Singapore’s national hydrogen strategy. Available from: https://www.mti.gov.sg/Industries/Hydrogen.

[91] Mazzucchi N (2022) Nuclear power can help the democratic world achieve energy independence. Nature 606: 841. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-01733-9

[92] Singapore Attorney General’s Chambers (2021) Energy Conservation Act 2013. Available from: https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/ECA2012.

[93] National Environment Agency (NEA) (2022) Energy efficiency. Available from: https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/climate-change-energy-efficiency/energy-efficiency.

[94] National Climate Change Secretariat (NCCS) (2022) Carbon tax. Available from: https://www.nccs.gov.sg/singapores-climate-action/mitigation-efforts/carbontax.

[95] Building and Construction Authority (BCA) (2022) Green Mark 2021. Available from: https://www1.bca.gov.sg/buildsg/sustainability/green-mark-certification-scheme/green-mark-2021.

[96] Building and Construction Authority (BCA) (2014) 3^rd Green Building Masterplan . Available from: https://www1.bca.gov.sg.

[97] Building and Construction Authority (BCA) (2021) Green Mark Incentive Schemes. Available from: https://www1.bca.gov.sg/buildsg/sustainability/green-mark-incentive-schemes.

[98] Building and Construction Authority (BCA) (2021) Super Low Energy Programme. Available from: https://www1.bca.gov.sg/buildsg/sustainability/super-low-energy-programme.

[99] Building and Construction Authority (BCA) (2021) Building Energy Benchmarking. Available from: https://www1.bca.gov.sg/buildsg/sustainability/regulatory-requirements-for-existing-buildings/bca-building-energy-benchmarking-and-disclosure.

[100] Building and Construction Authority (BCA) (2021) Green Buildings Innovation Cluster Programme. Available from: https://www1.bca.gov.sg/buildsg/buildsg-transformation-fund/green-buildings-innovation-cluster-gbic-programme.

[101] National Environmental Agency (NEA) (2019) Household energy consumption study 2017. Available from: https://www-nea-gov-sg-admin.cwp.sg/our-services/climate-change-energy-efficiency/energy-efficiency/household-sector/past-initiatives.

[102] National Environmental Agency (NEA), Singapore’s National Water Agency (PUB) (2021) Climate Friendly Households Programme. Available from: https://www.climate-friendly-households.gov.sg.

[103] Energy Market Authority (EMA) (2019) Empowering households to be more energy efficient. Available from: https://www.ema.gov.sg.

[104] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2019) Land Transport Master Plan 2040. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[105] Department of Statistics Singapore (DOS) (2021) Census of Population 2020. Available from: https://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/reference/cop2020/cop2020-sr2.

[106] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2018) Public consultations commence for the next Land Transport Plan. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[107] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2013) Household interview travel survey 2012. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[108] Moovit (2023) Global public transport report 2022. Available from: https://moovitapp.com/insights.

[109] Singapore Department of Statistics (2024) Transport statistics. Available from: https://www.singstat.gov.sg.

[110] TomTom International BV (2022) Singapore traffic index. Available from: https://www.tomtom.com.

[111] Velasco E (2021) Impact of Singapore’s COVID-19 confinement on atmospheric CO₂ fluxes at neighborhood scale . Urban Clim 37: 100822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2021.100822

[112] Milovanoff A, Minet L, Cheah L, et al. (2021) Greenhouse gas emission mitigation pathways for urban passenger land transport under ambitious climate targets. Environ Sci Technol 55: 8236-8246. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c06671

[113] Ministry of Transport (2017) The future of your bus rides. Available from: https://www.mot.gov.sg.

[114] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2022) Annual Vehicle Statistics 2021. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[115] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2023) Towards a green transport vision, LTA Sustainability Report 2022/23. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[116] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2017) Completion of the Bus Service Enhancement Programme (BSEP). Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[117] Public Transport Council (2018) International benchmarking study of public transport fares. Available from: https://www.ptc.gov.sg.

[118] Public Transport Council (PTC) (2021) 2021 Fare review exercise. Available from: https://www.ptc.gov.sg.

[119] Public Transport Council (PTC) (2023) Public transport customer satisfaction survey 2022. Available from: https://www.ptc.gov.sg.

[120] Lim V, Lua E, Teo T (2023) The bright side of commuting: the impact of commute enjoyment on post-commute recovery and work. Acad Manage Proc 2023: 12676. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMPROC.2023.130bp

[121] Quirapas-Franco MA, Aboagye-Gyan R, Gul MF (2018) Sources, drivers and barriers of innovation in Singapore’s Electronic Road Pricing. Asian J Public Aff 11: e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.18003/ajpa.201810

[122] Agarwal S, Koo KM (2016) Impact of electronic road pricing (ERP) changes on transport modal choice. Reg Sci Urban Econ 60: 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2016.05.003

[123] Chia NC, Phang SY (2001) Motor vehicle taxes as an environmental management instrument: the case of Singapore. Environ Econ Policy Stud 4: 67-93. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03353917

[124] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2021) Certificate of Entitlement (COE). Available from: https://onemotoring.lta.gov.sg.

[125] Singapore Attorney General’s Chambers (2022) Road Traffic (Motor Vehicles, Construction and Use) Rules 1999. Available from: https://sso.agc.gov.sg/SL/RTA1961-R9.

[126] Centre for Livable Cities (2016) Creating livable cities through Car-Lite urban mobility. Available from: https://www.clc.gov.sg.

[127] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2020) Commencement if the new Point-to-Point transport regulatory framework. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[128] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2021) Electric vehicles: our vision. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/industry_innovations/technologies/electric_vehicles.html.

[129] Richter JL (2022) A circular economy approach is needed for electric vehicles. Nat Electron 5: 5-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00711-9

[130] Harper G, Sommerville R, Kendrick E, et al. (2019) Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. Nature 575: 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5

[131] Tan SH, Roth M, Velasco E (2017) Particle exposure and inhaled dose during commuting in Singapore. Atmos Environ 170: 245-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.09.056

[132] Velasco E, Segovia E (2023) Effectiveness of equipping bus stop shelters with cooling and filtering systems in a city with tropical climate. Smart Sustain Built Environ 2023. https://doi.org/10.1108/SASBE-03-2023-0063

[133] Velasco E, Segovia E (2021) Determining a commuters’ exposure to particle and noise pollution on double-decker buses. Aerosol Air Qual Res 21: 210165. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.210165

[134] Velasco E, Tan SH (2016) Particle exposure while sitting at bus stops of hot and humid Singapore. Atmos Environ 142: 251-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.07.054

[135] Harrison RM, Allan J, Carruthers D, et al. (2021) Non-exhaust vehicle emissions of particulate matter and VOC from road traffic: A review. Atmos Environ 262: 118592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118592

[136] International Energy Agency (IEA) (2022) Global methane tracker 2022. Available from: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-methane-tracker-2022.

[137] Mussetti G, Davin EL, Schwaab J, et al. (2022) Do electric vehicles mitigate urban heat? The case of a tropical city. Front Environ Sci 10: 810342. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.810342

[138] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2021) Walking and cycling infrastructure. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[139] National Parks Board (NParks) (2020) Know our recreational connectivity. Available from: https://www.nparks.gov.sg.

[140] Centre for Liveable Cities (2021) Transport: overcoming constraints, sustaining mobility. Available from: https://www.clc.gov.sg.

[141] Singapore Attorney General’s Chambers (2018) Active Mobility Act 2017. Available from: https://sso.agc.gov.sg/SL/AMA2017-S251-2018.

[142] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2024) Rules and code of conduct. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[143] The Straits Times (2021) Cyclist versus pedestrians in battle of the sidewalks. Available from: https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/battle-of-the-sidewalks-cyclists-versus-pedestrians.

[144] Sport Singapore (2021) National Sports Participation Survey. Available from: https://data.gov.sg/dataset/top-sport-physical-activity-by-sg-residents-overall.

[145] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (2018) LTA to commence license applications for bicycle-sharing operators. Available from: https://www.lta.gov.sg.

[146] Ministry of Manpower (MOE) (2024) Foreign workforce numbers. Available from: https://www.mom.gov.sg.

[147] Rice Media (2021) When will we start ferrying migrant workers like human beings?. Available from: https://www.ricemedia.co/author/wimby.

[148] Infocom Media Development Authority (IMDA) (2016) Digitalization initiatives in support of the logistics industry transformation map. Available from: https://www.imda.gov.sg.

[149] Infocom Media Development Authority (IMDA) (2020) Federated locker and collection points programme. Available from: https://www.imda.gov.sg.

[150] Ernst and Young Advisory Pte. Ltd (2020) Study of the impact of industry 4.0 on Singapore’s logistic workforce. Available from: https://www.ssg-wsg.gov.sg.

[151] Carrière S, Weigend Rodríguez R, Pey P, et al. (2020) Circular cities: The case of Singapore. Built Environ Proj Asset Manag 10: 491-507. https://doi.org/10.1108/BEPAM-12-2019-0137

[152] A-Advantage Consulting (2018) Singapore national values assessment (NVA) 2018. Singapore: Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. Available from: https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/docs/default-source/ips/nva-2018-press-release-(2018july30).pdf.

[153] Smart Nation and Digital Government Office (SNDG), the Government Technology Agency (GovTech) (2019) Work-life harmony in Singapore. A Citizens’ Panel Report. Available from: https://www.ideas.gov.sg.

[154] The Straits Times (2021) Why are S’poreans waking up exhausted even after 7 hour of sleep?. Available from: https://www.straitstimes.com/life/getting-enough-rest-dont-just-sleep-on-it.

[155] Visvalingam N, Sathish T, Soljak M, et al. (2020) Prevalence of and factors associated with poor sleep quality and short sleep in a working population in Singapore. Sleep Health 6: 277-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2019.10.008