Wearable and Portable Electric Taste Device and the Characterization of the Electrical Taste Sensations Produced

Abstract

This paper introduces a wearable and portable computer interface designed to produce virtual taste sensations on the human tongue without the use of chemicals. The device achieves this by delivering electrical stimulation, and the intensity and type of taste sensations can be adjusted by modifying parameters such as frequency, duty cycle, and voltage intensity of the output signal. Our study demonstrates that this compact system can reliably evoke statistically significant sour and salty taste sensations, with over 50 participants also reporting experiences of spicy, bitter, metallic, electric, and pressure sensations. Increased voltage amplitude resulted in more intense sensations, while lower duty cycles produced lingering cold feelings, and higher duty cycles generated pressure and discomfort. Interestingly, the intensity of metallic taste sensations remained consistent across varying duty cycles and frequencies. This research highlights the potential of wearable digital taste technology to revolutionize virtual sensory experiences, opening new opportunities for applications in immersive media, health, and entertainment.

Keywords

virtual taste / digital taste / taste characterization / taste receptors / electrical stimulation of taste / taste communication

References

[1] Gravina, S. A., Yep, G. L., & Khan, M. (2013). Human biology of taste. Annals of Saudi Medicine, 33(3), 217-222. https://doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.2013.217

[2] Avery, J. A., Liu, A. G., Ingeholm, J. E., Riddell, C. D., Gotts, S. J., & Martin, A. (2020). Taste quality representation in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 40(5), 1042-1052. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1751-19.2019

[3] Fons, M., & Osterhammel, P. A. (1966). Electrogustometry. Archives of Otolaryngology, 83(6), 538-542. https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.1966.00760020540008

[4] Karunanayaka, K., Johari, N., Hariri, S., Camelia, H., Bielawski, K. S., & Cheok, A. D. (2018). New thermal taste actuation technology for future multisensory virtual reality and internet. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 24(4), 1496-1505. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2018.2794073

[5] Ullah, A., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., Gao, H., Wang, H., Zhang, J., & Li, G. (2022). E—Taste: Taste sensations and flavors based on tongue’s electrical and thermal stimulation. Sensors, 22(13), 4976. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22134976

[6] Cheok, A. D., & Karunanayaka, K. (2018). Virtual taste and smell technologies for multisensory internet and virtual reality. Germany: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73864-2

[7] Aoyama, K. (2020). Galvanic taste stimulation method for virtual reality and augmented reality. In Human Interface and the Management of Information: Designing Information, 341-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50020-7_24

[8] Duggal, A. S., Singh, R., Gehlot, A., Rashid, M., Alshamrani, S. S., & AlGhamdi, A. S. (2022). Digital taste in mulsemedia augmented reality: Perspective on developments and challenges. Electronics, 11(9), 1315. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11091315

[9] Atanasio, M., Sansone, F., Conte, R., & Tonacci, A. (2024). Exploring taste sensation in the metaverse: A literature review. In 2024 IEEE Gaming, Entertainment, and Media Conference, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1109/GEM61861.2024.10585647

[10] Ranasinghe, N., Cheok, A. D., Fernando, O. N. N., Nii, H., & Gopalakrishnakone, P. (2011). Digital taste: Electronic stimulation of taste sensations. In Ambient Intelligence: Second International Joint Conference, 345-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25167-2_48

[11] Nomura, I., Mochizuki, N., Nakamura, S., & Koike, T. (2021). Double—layered cup—shaped device to amplify taste sensation of carbonation by the electrical stimulation on the human tongue. In Proceedings of the 27th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, 62. https://doi.org/10.1145/3489849.3489904

[12] Zaylaa, A. J., & El Hajj, A. (2023). Neurocomputing and interfacing digital tasting system: Research, design and evaluation. BAU Journal—Science and Technology, 4(2), 8. https://doi.org/10.54729/2959-331X.1100

[13] Blijleven, E. E., Wegner, I., Stokroos, R. J., & Thomeer, H. G. X. M. (2023). The impact of injury of the chorda tympani nerve during primary stapes surgery or cochlear implantation on taste function, quality of life and food preferences: A study protocol for a double—blind prospective prognostic association study. PLoS One, 18(5), e0284571. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284571

[14] Pavlidis, P., Schittek, G. A., Saratziotis, A., Ferfeli, M., Kekes, G., & Gouveris, H. (2021). Electrogustometry: Normative data for stimulus duration, tongue site and age decline. Clinical Otolaryngology, 46(4), 767-774. https://doi.org/10.1111/coa.13731

[15] Miyashita, H. (2021). TTTV (taste the TV): Taste presentation display for “licking the screen” using a rolling transparent sheet and a mixture of liquid sprays. In Adjunct Proceedings of the 34th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, 37-40. https://doi.org/10.1145/3474349.3480223

[16] Nakamura, H., Mizukami, M., & Aoyama, K. (2021). Method of modifying spatial taste location through multielectrode galvanic taste stimulation. IEEE Access, 9, 47603-47614. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3068263

[17] Nakamura, H., Amemiya, T., Rekimoto, J., Ando, H., & Aoyama, K. (2021). Anodal galvanic taste stimulation to the chin enhances salty taste of NaCl water solution. Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics, 33(5), 1128-1134. https://doi.org/10.20965/jrm.2021.p1128

[18] Cramariuc, O. T., Mocanu, I., Lupu, I. G., & Muntianu, L. (2022). A smart device for salivary stimulation—Comparison between chemical and electrical stimuli. In 2022 E—Health and Bioengineering Conference, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1109/EHB55594.2022.9991382

[19] Matsuda, T., Mysore Ganesh, P., Brown, R., Grosso, V., & Doty, R. L. (2023). Electrogustometry: Validation of bipolar electrode stimulation. Chemical Senses, 48, bjad009. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjad009

[20] Xia, X., Yang, Y., Shi, Y., Zheng, W., & Men, H. (2023). Decoding taste information in human brain: A temporal and spatial reconstruction data augmentation method coupled with taste EEG. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2307.05365

[21] Gunder, N., Dörig, P., Witt, M., Welge—Lüssen, A., Menzel, S., & Hummel, T. (2023). Future therapeutic strategies for olfactory disorders: Electrical stimulation, stem cell therapy, and transplantation of olfactory epithelium—An overview. HNO, 71(Suppl 1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00106-022-01249-8

[22] Jiang, W., Zou, Y., Huang, L., Zeng, Y., Xiao, L. D., Chen, Q., & Zhang, F. (2023). Gustatory stimulus interventions for older adults with dysphagia: A scoping review. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 35(7), 1429-1442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-023-02437-4

[23] Miyashita, H., Kaji, Y., & Sato, A. (2023). Electric salt: Tableware design for enhancing taste of low—salt foods. In Adjunct Proceedings of the 36th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, 32. https://doi.org/10.1145/3586182.3616626

[24] Ha, J. G., Kim, B. R., Cho, A., Jeong, Y., Rha, M. S., Kang, J. W., :::, & Kim, C. H. (2023). Visualization of the relationship between electrogustometry and whole mouth test using multidimensional scaling. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 8798. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-35372-5

[25] Li, L., Li, F., Zhang, X., Song, Y., Li, S., & Yao, H. (2024). The effect of electrical stimulation in critical patients: A meta—analysis of randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Neurology, 15, 1403594. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2024.1403594

[26] Palmer, A., Hamann, T., Liese, J., Müller, B., Kropp, P., Jürgens, T. P., & Rimmele, F. (2024). Efficacy of cranial electrotherapy stimulation in patients with burning mouth syndrome: A randomized, controlled, double—blind pilot study. Frontiers in Neurology, 15, 1343093. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2024.1343093

[27] Katsuki, M., Fukushima, T., Wada, N., Goto, T., Imai, A., Hanaoka, Y., :::, & Horiuchi, T. (2024). Enhancing salty taste perception in stroke patients via anodal electrical stimulation to the chin. Foods, 13(24), 4087. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13244087

[28] Funamizu, T., Matsumoto, R., Suzuki, A., Watabe, K., Nakamura, H., & Kasamatsu, C. (2025). Sensory studies on the taste and flavor perception of food products by anodal transcutaneous electrical stimulation. Hypertension Research, 48(2), 763-771. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-024-01867-5

[29] Lindemann, B. (1996). Taste reception. Physiological Reviews, 76(3), 719-766. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1996.76.3.719

[30] Ellegård, E. K., Goldsmith, D., Hay, K. D., & Morton, R. P. (2007). Studies on the relationship between electrogustometry and sour taste perception. Auris Nasus Larynx, 34(4), 477-480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anl.2007.03.004

[31] Plattig, K. H., & Innitzer, J. (1976). Taste qualities elicited by electric stimulation of single human tongue papillae. Pflügers Archiv, 361(2), 115-120. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00583454

[32] Lawless, H. T., Stevens, D. A., Chapman, K. W., & Kurtz, A. (2005). Metallic taste from electrical and chemical stimulation. Chemical Senses, 30(3), 185-194. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bji014

[33] Ranasinghe, N., & Do, E.Y. L. (2016). Virtual sweet: Simulating sweet sensation using thermal stimulation on the tip of the tongue. In Adjunct Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, 127-128. https://doi.org/10.1145/2984751.2985729

[34] Nakamura, H., & Miyashita, H. (2011). Augmented gustation using electricity. In Proceedings of the 2nd Augmented Human International Conference, 34. https://doi.org/10.1145/1959826.1959860

[35] Ranasinghe, N., & Do, E. Y. L. (2016). Digital lollipop: Studying electrical stimulation on the human tongue to simulate taste sensations. ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications, 13(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1145/2996462

[36] Klein, L., Barkai, T., Carmel—Neiderman, N., Scheinowitz, M., Dagan, A., Shilo, S., & DeRowe, A. (2023). Unilateral increase of gustatory thresholds in acute otitis media: A pilot study. The Journal of International Advanced Otology, 19(2), 112-115. https://doi.org/10.5152/iao.2023.22694

[37] Kim, S. Y., Byun, J. S., Jung, J. K., & Choi, J. K. (2019). Clinical characteristics and gustatory profiles in patients with subjective taste complaints. Journal of Oral Medicine and Pain, 44(3), 103-111. https://doi.org/10.14476/jomp.2019.44.3.103

[38] Matsumoto, R., Funamizu, T., Kanno, K., Fujimoto, N., Hayashi, K., Ijichi, C., :::, & Nakamura, H. (2024). Continuous saltiness enhancement in NaCl solutions and its potential impact on food products via anodal transcutaneous electrical stimulation. Applied Food Research, 4(2), 100584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2024.100584