Lignocellulose-derived hydrogel sensors for new-generation motion monitoring

Abstract

The rapid advancement of the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence, and personalized medicine has catalyzed unprecedented demand for wearable flexible sensors as critical interfaces bridging the physical and digital worlds. Lignocellulose-derived hydrogels have emerged as ideal candidates for next-generation motion monitoring platforms, owing to their exceptional flexibility, tissue-like mechanical compliance, intrinsic biocompatibility, and sustainability. In contrast to synthetic petroleum-based polymers and precious metal conductors, lignocellulose - the most abundant natural polymer resource on Earth - offers a unique combination of hierarchical architectures from molecular chains to tissue-level pores, rich chemical modifiability, and inherent biodegradability. This review systematically examines recent progress in lignocellulose-based flexible hydrogel sensors for motion monitoring, innovatively adopting a “motion demand-oriented” perspective. We first discuss the intrinsic advantages of lignocellulose, including the synergistic roles of cellulose (high-strength framework), hemicellulose (dynamic cross-linking and flexibility), and lignin (adhesion, UV resistance, and antioxidant properties), and elaborate on top-down and bottom-up engineering strategies for constructing programmable hydrogel networks. We then provide an in-depth analysis of multiscale sensing mechanisms, encompassing piezoresistive, piezoelectric, triboelectric, capacitive, temperature, and humidity transduction pathways. Furthermore, we highlight cutting-edge applications ranging from macroscopic joint motion detection and subtle physiological signal capture to healthcare monitoring, rehabilitation assistance, and human-machine interaction. Finally, this review discusses key challenges and future development directions in this field from the perspectives of material design, structural regulation, and system integration, providing a theoretical basis and design ideas for the next generation of sustainable, high-performance, and intelligent flexible sensing systems.

Keywords

Lignocellulosic biomass / flexible hydrogel sensors / motion monitoring / wearable electronics / multimodal sensing / hierarchical structure

References

[1] Wu T,Zhao L.Recent progress on flexible multimodal sensors: decoupling strategies, fabrication and applications.Adv Mater2026;38:e21375 PMCID:PMC12933025

[2] Chen Z,Zhang B,Yu X.Deformable materials and structures in wearable haptic interfaces.Nat Rev Mater2026;11:266-85

[3] Gao S,Li N.Additive‐manufacturing‐based flexible tactile sensors.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e32112

[4] Huang X,Sun S,Cheng L.Recent progress of hydrogel-based bioelectronics for mechanophysiological signal sensing.Mater Sci Eng R Rep2025;162:100888

[5] Liu J,Li J.Multimodal and flexible hydrogel-based sensors for respiratory monitoring and posture recognition.Biosens Bioelectron2024;243:115773

[6] Xiao W,Cui X.Ionogel‐dominated wearable sensors for reliable health monitoring.SusMat2025;5:e70026

[7] Mo F,Liu Y.Advances in ionic conductive hydrogels for skin sensor applications.Mater Sci Eng R Rep2025;165:100989

[8] Hyun JE,Kim SH.Wearable ion gel based pressure sensor with high sensitivity and ultra-wide sensing range for human motion detection.Chem Eng J2024;484:149464

[9] Zhao S,Yan F.Wearable resistive-type stretchable strain sensors: materials and applications.Adv Mater2025;37:e2413929

[10] Li J,Fan Y,Gong J.Flexible wearable electronics for enhanced human-computer interaction and virtual reality applications.Nano Energy2025;138:110821

[11] Yang Q,Wang M.Machine learning-enhanced modular ionic skin for broad-spectrum multimodal discriminability in bidirectional human-robot interaction.Adv Mater2025;37:e08795 PMCID:PMC12548507

[12] Chen Y,Ye X,Ying Y.Hydrogel-based pressure sensors for electronic skin systems.Matter2025;8:101992

[13] Gu Y,Guo Q.Empowering human‐machine interfaces: self‐powered hydrogel sensors for flexible and intelligent systems.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e09085

[14] Qin J,Zeng Y,Tang D.Recent advances in flexible sensors: from sensing materials to detection modes.TrAC Trends Anal Chem2024;181:118027

[15] Cao P,Zhang T.Multifunctional luffa sponge hydrogel with high mechanical strength, fatigue resistance, and ionic conductivity for monitoring human vital signs.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2501131

[16] Li X.Design principles for strong and tough hydrogels.Nat Rev Mater2024;9:380-98

[17] Yao X,Wei N,Coseri S.Cellulose-based conductive hydrogels for emerging intelligent sensors.Adv Fiber Mater2024;6:1256-305

[18] Sun B,Li X,Zhang Z.Nanocellulose-based hydrogels for smart sensors.Carbohydr Polym2025;368:124152

[19] Wang Z,Li J.Nanocellulose based hydrogel for flexible sensors: Current progress and future perspective.Nano Energy2024;129:109974

[20] Li W,Xu Y,Xu T.Lignocellulose-mediated functionalization of liquid metals toward the frontiers of multifunctional materials.Adv Mater2025;37:e2415761

[21] Zhang H,Zhang M.Natural biomass hydrogels for intelligent sensing: From component crosslinking engineering to stimuli-responsive mechanisms.eScience2026;6:100505

[22] Yang H,Duan Y.Nanocellulose-graphene composites: preparation and applications in flexible electronics.Int J Biol Macromol2023;253:126903

[23] Sulis DB,Sederoff H.Advances in lignocellulosic feedstocks for bioenergy and bioproducts.Nat Commun2025;16:1244 PMCID:PMC11787297

[24] Rao J,Chen G.Hemicellulose: structure, chemical modification, and application.Prog Polym Sci2023;140:101675

[25] Wang J,Chu F.Wood-derived functional polymeric materials.Adv Mater2021;33:e2001135

[26] Zhang Y.Lignin-containing hydrogels: transforming a low-value byproduct to absorbents, wound dressings and strain sensors.Chem Eng J2023;475:146460

[27] Chen X,Jiang B.Research progress of wood and lignocellulose in sustainable piezoelectric systems.Nano Energy2024;126:109650

[28] Chen C,Wu Q,Li D.Highly strong and flexible composite hydrogel reinforced by aligned wood cellulose skeleton via alkali treatment for muscle-like sensors.Chem Eng J2020;400:125876

[29] Wang Z,Kong X.Top-down fabrication of wood hydrogels: from preparation to application.Chem Eng J2024;490:151518

[30] Wang H,Song G.Advanced and versatile lignin-derived biodegradable composite film materials toward a sustainable world.Green Chem2021;23:3790-817

[31] Wang S,Ge S,Han J.Advanced design strategies and multifunctional applications of Nanocellulose/MXene composites: a comprehensive review.Mater Sci Eng R Rep2025;163:100925

[32] Duan X,Lei T.Highly elastic spongelike hydrogels for impedance-based multimodal sensing.ACS Nano2025;19:2909-21

[33] Wang H,Yu Y.Multifunctional flexible MXene/TA@CNC electronic hydrogel patch with robust adhesion and self-healing properties for wearable electronics.Chem Eng J2025;507:160329

[34] Yang J,An X.Highly flexible, stretchable, and compressible lignin‐based hydrogel sensors with frost resistance for advanced bionic hand control.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2416916

[35] Fu D,Zhou L,Zheng T.Triple physical cross-linking cellulose nanofibers-based poly(ionic liquid) hydrogel as wearable multifunctional sensors.Carbohydr Polym2024;325:121572

[36] Li M,Wei Q.Hydrophobic associations and cellulose nanofibers reinforced PVA/PAM multi-network conductive hydrogel with high sensitivity, fast response, and excellent mechanical properties.Carbohydr Polym2025;368:124225

[37] He X,Ni Q.Mechanical robust and highly conductive composite hydrogel reinforced by a combination of cellulose nanofibrils/polypyrrole toward high-performance strain sensor.Compos Part B Eng2023;266:111022

[38] Li Y,Han L.Carboxymethyl cellulose assisted polyaniline in conductive hydrogels for high-performance self-powered strain sensors.Carbohydr Polym2022;298:120060

[39] Ren J,Xiang X.Carboxymethyl cellulose-reinforced sandwich-structured carbon nanotube composite hydrogels for strain sensing and joule heating.Carbohydr Polym2025;369:124291

[40] Han Z,Cheng JH.Constructing a novel humidity sensor using acrylic acid/bagasse cellulose porous hydrogel combining graphene oxide and citral for antibacterial and intelligent fruit preservation.Carbohydr Polym2024;326:121639

[41] Wang Z,Zhang H.A hydrogel electrolyte toward a flexible zinc-ion battery and multifunctional health monitoring electronics.ACS Nano2024;18:7596-609

[42] Wang Y,Li J.Zinc-ion engineered plant-based multifunctional hydrogels for flexible wearable strain sensors, bio-electrodes and zinc-ion hybrid capacitors.Chem Eng J2023;465:142917

[43] Yang L,Yang Y.Self-healing cellulose-based hydrogels: from molecular design to multifarious applications.Carbohydr Polym2025;347:122738

[44] Liu P,Wang C.Humic acid-based anti-freezing and self-healing hydrogel flexible sensors with functional cellulose nanocrystals.Chem Eng J2025;506:159854

[45] Yu Z,Cai Y.Dual-responsive carboxymethyl cellulose-based hydrogel sensor with antibacterial activity for wound monitoring and infected wound repair.Chem Eng J2025;526:171224

[46] Shin E,Zhao K.Environmentally sustainable moisture energy harvester with chemically networked cellulose nanofiber.Energy Environ Sci2024;17:7165-81

[47] Li W,Zeren D.Mechanically robust, anti-freezing, and conductive dual-crosslinked ionic hydrogel for stable low-temperature sensing.Chem Eng J2026;531:174109

[48] Dong D,Lai X,Li H.Cellulose nanofiber-reinforced chitosan conductive hydrogel tailored by double-network strategy for stretchable strain sensor.Int J Biol Macromol2025;333:148851

[49] Li P,Liu X.Nanocomposite hydrogels flexible sensors with functional cellulose nanocrystals for monitoring human motion and lactate in sweat.Chem Eng J2023;466:143306

[50] Ou J,Yao L,Qi H.Simultaneous strengthening and toughening lignin/cellulose nanofibril composite films: effects from flexible hydrogen bonds.Chem Eng J2023;453:139770

[51] Li W,Wang G.Sustainable carbon‐based catalyst materials derived from lignocellulosic biomass for energy storage and conversion: atomic modulation and properties improvement.Carbon Energy2025;7:e708

[52] Yang H,Li W.Lignocellulose-mediated gel polymer electrolytes toward next-generation energy storage.Nanomicro Lett2025;18:84 PMCID:PMC12644387

[53] Xu Z,Liang H.Development of cinnamon essential oil-loaded Pickering emulsions stabilized by chitosan/gelatin nanoparticles with enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm actives.Collagen Leather2025;7:180

[54] Liu W,Li W.Sustainable radiative cooling materials enabled by engineered lignocellulose.Adv Energy Mater2026;16:e71007

[55] Li W,Zhang Z.Lignin‐metal coordination enables rapid and scalable assembly of efficient solar evaporators.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e77041

[56] Wang X,Zhang H.Cellulose‐mediated multifunctional fibers in energy storage and harvesting systems.Adv Energy Mater2026;16:e70953

[57] Pan X,Ma N,Gao M.Bacterial cellulose hydrogel for sensors.Chem Eng J2023;461:142062

[58] Zhang H,Hua Q.Size-controlled synthesis of xylan micro/nanoparticles by self-assembly of alkali-extracted xylan.Carbohydr Polym2023;315:120944

[59] Liu K,Xu T,Si C.Cellulosic fibers for sustainable functional textiles and devices.Adv Fiber Mater2026;8:843-79

[60] Su Z,Huang Q.Designed biomass materials for “green” electronics: a review of materials, fabrications, devices, and perspectives.Prog Mater Sci2022;125:100917

[61] Ye Y,Lizundia E,Chen C.Cellulose-based ionic conductor: an emerging material toward sustainable devices.Chem Rev2023;123:9204-64

[62] Zhao L,Zhang H.A triple-network hydrogel synergistically constructed via hydrophobic interactions, hemicellulose-mediated Diels-Alder bonds, and Fe³⁺ coordination for flexible sensors and TENGs.Carbohydr Polym2026;387:125446

[63] Cai J,Qin R,Wang X.Xylan derived carbon sphere/graphene composite film with low resistance for supercapacitor electrode.Collagen Leather2024;6:154

[64] Liu K,Xu T,Pan X.Hierarchical cellulose/MXene aerogel films with coral‐like polyaniline skin for absorption‐led broadband EMI shielding.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e74562

[65] Shao J,Yu J,Liu W.Multifunctional self-healing hemicellulose-based hydrogel for antimicrobial wound dressings and motion-responsive wearable sensing.Carbohydr Polym2025;370:124364

[66] Wang Y,Xu T.Bioinspired hollow fibers with efficient transport channels for wide humidity atmospheric water harvesting.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e74928

[67] Kamdem Tamo A,Deffo G.Lignocellulosic biomass and its main structural polymers as sustainable materials for (bio)sensing applications.J Mater Chem A2025;13:24185-253

[68] Chowdhury IF,Al-Amin M.A sustainable approach for harnessing the synergy between lignosulfonate and hemicellulose: towards next-generation bio-derived flexible electronics.Int J Biol Macromol2025;330:147985

[69] Gong X,Alam N.Preparation of hemicellulose nanoparticle-containing ionic hydrogels with high strength, self-healing, and UV resistance and their applications as strain sensors and asymmetric pressure sensors.Biomacromolecules2022;23:2272-9

[70] Pang T,Liu M.Lignin ligand boosts Ni³⁺ species generation for biomass electrocatalytic oxidation.eScience2026;In Press:

[71] Li W,Li T.All-in-one self-cleaning lignin-derived spherical solar evaporator for continuous desalination and synergic water purification.Water Res2025;282:123932

[72] Li W,Xu Y.Lignin-derived materials for triboelectric nanogenerators with emphasis on lignin multifunctionality.Nano Energy2024;128:109912

[73] Yuan L,Wu Y,Sun R.The booming lignin-derived functional composites/nanocomposites.Compos Part B Eng2024;287:111869

[74] Huo L,Ding W,Li X.Recent advances in the preparation, properties, and applications of lignin-based hydrogels and adhesives.Green Chem2025;27:1895-908

[75] Liu Y,Hou P.Preparation of dual cross-linked hydrogel electrolytes containing modified lignin for supercapacitors and sensors.Chem Eng J2024;480:148259

[76] Jiang B,Guo X.Lignin-based materials for additive manufacturing: chemistry, processing, structures, properties, and applications.Adv Sci2023;10:e2206055 PMCID:PMC10037990

[77] Meng D,Kumar V.Lignin -based hydrogels through a green-metrics lens: solvents, crosslinking chemistries, and scalable processes.Green Chem2026;28:8044-66

[78] Pang T,Wang G,Sui W.Non-carbonized Pd single-atom catalyst supported on lignin-functionalized phenolic resin for potent catalytic transfer hydrogenation of lignin-derived aldehydes.Angew Chem Int Ed Engl2025;64:e202503195

[79] Pang T,Sui W,Wang D.Lignin-based support for metal catalysts: synthetic strategies, performance boost, and application advances.Coord Chem Rev2025;528:216426

[80] Ralph J,Boerjan W.Lignin structure and its engineering.Curr Opin Biotechnol2019;56:240-9

[81] Lee CH,Ryu J,Yoo CG.Lignin structure dynamics: advanced real-time molecular sensing strategies.Chem Eng J2024;487:150680

[82] Liu X,Wang Y.Mechanically adaptable microdomed hydrogels for flexible pressure sensors with broad detection range and stable signal output.Chem Eng J2025;505:159113

[83] Österberg M,Mattos BD.Spherical lignin particles: a review on their sustainability and applications.Green Chem2020;22:2712-33

[84] Huang D,Xu P.The cornerstone of realizing lignin value-addition: exploiting the native structure and properties of lignin by extraction methods.Chem Eng J2020;402:126237

[85] Kim J,Ryu J.Advancing biomass fractionation with real-time prediction of lignin content and MWd: a kMC-based multiscale model for optimized lignin extraction.Chem Eng J2024;479:147226

[86] Yan L,Liu H,Si C.Lignin polymerization: towards high-performance materials.Chem Soc Rev2025;54:6634-51 PMCID:PMC12150016

[87] Gigli M.Fractionation of industrial lignins: opportunities and challenges.Green Chem2020;22:4722-46

[88] Wu R,Jawad AH.An eco-friendly chitosan-genipin/SiO₂ composite for reactive orange 16 dye removal: insights into adsorption statistical modeling and mechanism.Int J Biol Macromol2024;270:132329

[89] Mu J,Li D,Chen S.Self-gelated flexible lignin-based ionohydrogels for efficient self-powered strain sensors.Chem Eng J2025;507:160750

[90] Li X,Wang X,Zhang HJ.Advanced lignin‐based hydrogels with superior stiffness, toughness, and sensing capabilities.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2415744

[91] Shi H,Yang H.Cellulose‐based dual‐network conductive hydrogel with exceptional adhesion.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2408560

[92] Wang Y,Ding Y.Multifunctional nano‐conductive hydrogels with high mechanical strength, toughness and fatigue resistance as self‐powered wearable sensors and deep learning‐assisted recognition system.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2409081

[93] Chen B,Shen Z.Dual-property lignin macromolecule featuring rigidity and flexibility for the preparation of supramolecular hydrogels with creep resistance and excellent toughness.Chem Eng J2025;523:168828

[94] Qin L,Zhang H,Zhai H.Lignin-modified cellulose nanofibers hydrogel under adjustable binary solvent systems with excellent adhesion, self-healing and anti-freeze properties.Int J Biol Macromol2024;279:135559

[95] Wong LC,Goh CF.Designing cellulose hydrogels from non-woody biomass.Carbohydr Polym2021;264:118036

[96] Zhang C,Fu Q,Wang S.Wood-cellulose-fiber-based functional materials for triboelectric nanogenerators.Nano Energy2021;81:105637

[97] Gan Q,Gong X,Yan Y.Advancing lignocellulosic conversion though biosensor-enabled metabolic engineering.Green Chem2025;27:9862-73 PMCID:PMC12315519

[98] Tang Q,Xu Y.Lignin containing cellulose nanofibers for advanced materials: from hierarchical structure to functional applications.Bioresour Technol2026;447:134157

[99] Pang T,Chen H.Lignocellulosic full-components hydrogelation using steam-exploded corn stover.Green Chem2024;26:6078-88

[100] Li W,Pang T.Component separation of woody biomass and its application in electromagnetic interference shielding.Nano Res2026;19:94908246

[101] Chen W,Li B,Ji X.Skin-inspired piezoresistive sensor based on hierarchical structures and lignocellulosic bioplastic electrodes with ultrahigh sensitivity.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2025;17:65835-47

[102] Teng Y,Cui Y.High-sensitivity and flexible motion sensing enabled by robust, self-healing wood-based anisotropic hydrogel composites.Small2025;21:e2500944 PMCID:PMC11921998

[103] Xu Z,Pang X.Mechanical tough, non-swelling, self-adhesive and highly conductive amphibious hydrogels for motion sensing in complex conditions.J Mater Sci Technol2025;237:10-9

[104] Abir SSH,Zornitzer J,Akin S.A composite bacterial cellulose for enhanced-performance triboelectric and piezoelectric nanogenerators.Nano Energy2025;141:111123

[105] Ma J,Gu Y.Innovative cellulose-mediated liquid metal composites hydrogel with adhesive and mechanical-thermal multimodal sensing capabilities for smart wearable devices.Chem Eng J2026;530:173583

[106] Sun L,Zhao L,Cao X.Sustainable construction of lignin-containing cellulose nanofibrils reinforced antifreeze deep eutectic solvent gel for wearable human motion strain sensors.J Clean Prod2026;553:148011

[107] Zitting A,Altgen M,Penttilä PA.Role of lignin in moisture interactions of cellulose microfibril structures in wood.Small Struct2024;5:2400167

[108] Sejati PS,Fradet F.Understanding the thermoplasticization mechanism of wood via esterification with fatty acids: a comparative study of the reactivity of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin.Carbohydr Polym2024;324:121542

[109] He X,Lu J.High-strength, anisotropic bamboo hydrogel via in situ lignin modification for ion-selective transport and sensor.Chem Eng J2024;481:148416

[110] Zhang D,Xie Y.Mimicking skin cellulose hydrogels for sensor applications.Chem Eng J2022;427:130921

[111] Tie J,Mao Z.Nanocellulose-mediated transparent high strength conductive hydrogel based on in-situ formed polypyrrole nanofibrils as a multimodal sensor.Carbohydr Polym2021;273:118600

[112] Chen L,Rong X.Super-stretching and high-performance ionic thermoelectric hydrogels based on carboxylated bacterial cellulose coordination for self-powered sensors.Carbohydr Polym2023;321:121310

[113] Yao X,Qian L.Super stretchable, self‐healing, adhesive ionic conductive hydrogels based on tailor‐made ionic liquid for high‐performance strain sensors.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2204565

[114] Heidarian P,Yousefi H.A 3D printable dynamic nanocellulose/nanochitin self-healing hydrogel and soft strain sensor.Carbohydr Polym2022;291:119545

[115] Meng Y,Cheng Y,Wang H.Lignin-based hydrogels: a review of preparation, properties, and application.Int J Biol Macromol2019;135:1006-19

[116] Gu Y,Zhang C.Interfacial strategies and bioengineering of lignin-derived strong and tough gels.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2026;226:116415

[117] Shojaeiarani J,Shirzadifar A.A review on cellulose nanocrystals as promising biocompounds for the synthesis of nanocomposite hydrogels.Carbohydr Polym2019;216:247-59

[118] Sun X,Agate S,Lucia LA.Highly tunable bioadhesion and optics of 3D printable PNIPAm/cellulose nanofibrils hydrogels.Carbohydr Polym2020;234:115898

[119] Zhang M,Liu K.Strong, conductive, and freezing-tolerant polyacrylamide/PEDOT:PSS/cellulose nanofibrils hydrogels for wearable strain sensors.Carbohydr Polym2023;305:120567

[120] Chen J,Abdiryim T.An overview of conductive composite hydrogels for flexible electronic devices.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2024;7:841

[121] Zhao W,Hu S,Tian H.Understanding piezoelectric characteristics of PHEMA-based hydrogel nanocomposites as soft self-powered electronics.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2018;1:320-31

[122] Wang G,Zhu Y.Developing cellulosic functional materials from multi-scale strategy and applications in flexible bioelectronic devices.Carbohydr Polym2022;283:119160

[123] Dong B,Lu P.TEMPO bacterial cellulose and MXene nanosheets synergistically promote tough hydrogels for intelligent wearable human-machine interaction.Carbohydr Polym2024;326:121621

[124] Wei J,Zeng Z.Bioinspired cellulose‐integrated MXene‐based hydrogels for multifunctional sensing and electromagnetic interference shielding.Interdiscip Mater2022;1:495-506

[125] Lu Y,Ma Y.Nanocellulose-assisted construction of conductive gradient hydrogel for remote actuated and self-sensing soft actuator.Carbohydr Polym2025;368:124092

[126] Zou Y,Zhang R.Cellulose nanofibers/liquid metal hydrogels with high tensile strength, environmental adaptability and electromagnetic shielding for temperature monitoring and strain sensors.Carbohydr Polym2025;348:122788

[127] Xu Q,Zhao W.Strategies in the preparation of conductive polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels for applications in flexible strain sensors, flexible supercapacitors, and triboelectric nanogenerator sensors: an overview.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2023;6:783

[128] Ni Q,Zhou J.Mechanical tough and stretchable quaternized cellulose nanofibrils/MXene conductive hydrogel for flexible strain sensor with multi-scale monitoring.J Mater Sci Technol2024;191:181-91

[129] Sima H,Shi X.CNT@CNF/MXene hydrogel with complete conductive network for flexible anti-freeze sensor and electromagnetic shielding.Carbohydr Polym2025;366:123825

[130] Hu L,Sugiarto S.Hydrogel-based flexible electronics.Adv Mater2023;35:e2205326

[131] Ye Y,Zhang Y.An information encrypted heterogeneous hydrogel with programmable mechanical properties enabled by 3D patterning.Mater Horiz2023;10:2667-76

[132] Song Y,Hao S.Heterogeneous interface interlocking hydrogel by harnessing cellulose scaffold for robust and controllable soft actuators.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2509712

[133] Yi J,Lin Y.Bentonite nanosheets-incorporated silk fibroin double-network hydrogel as a multifunctional triboelectric sensor for real-time monitoring of basketball motion in virtual reality.Nano Energy2026;155:112068

[134] Zheng Z,Bai X.Cellulose nanofibril-filled damping and lubricating hydrogels for mitigating friction-induced vibration of polyurethane composites.Small2026;22:e13307

[135] Wang S,Khan KA,Fan Y.Deep eutectic solvents as a ‘multifunctional operating platform’ for nanocellulose production and modification: a review on sustainable composite advancements.Mater Sci Eng R Rep2025;165:101025

[136] Wang H,Chen J.Flexible chitosan sensing hydrogel enabled by phytic acid coordination effect with high-conductivity and ultra-sensitivity for self-powered handwriting recognition and multimodal sensors.Nano Energy2024;128:109843

[137] Liao J,Wang Y.Emerging cellulosic materials for sustainable mechanosensing and energy harvesting devices: advances and prospect.Nano Today2024;56:102232

[138] Zeng Z,Pang X.Lignin nanosphere‐modified MXene activated‐rapid gelation of mechanically robust, environmental adaptive, highly conductive hydrogel for wearable sensors application.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2409855

[139] Karimzadeh Z,Rahimpour E.Nanomaterial based PVA nanocomposite hydrogels for biomedical sensing: advances toward designing the ideal flexible/wearable nanoprobes.Adv Colloid Interface Sci2022;305:102705

[140] Zhang K,Liu Y.Development of a multifunctional and biocompatible hydrogel for flexible implantable sensors.Chem Eng J2025;522:167403

[141] Hang C,Li K.Anisotropic hydrogel sensors with muscle-like structures based on high-absorbent alginate fibers.Carbohydr Polym2025;349:123015

[142] Liu R,Chu H.High-performance gelatin-based hydrogel flexible sensor for respiratory monitoring and human–machine interaction.Chem Eng J2024;502:157975

[143] Wang D,Fan C.A strong, ultrastretchable, antifreezing and high sensitive strain sensor based on ionic conductive fiber reinforced organohydrogel.Compos Part B Eng2022;243:110116

[144] Zhang Y,Zou J.Mechanically robust and anti‐swelling anisotropic conductive hydrogel with fluorescence for multifunctional sensing.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2410698

[145] Zhao Y,Hao Y.Multifunctional PVA/PNIPAM conductive hydrogel sensors enabled human-machine interaction intelligent rehabilitation training.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2024;7:1066

[146] Zhang S,Gao X.High-strength, antiswelling directional layered PVA/MXene hydrogel for wearable devices and underwater sensing.Adv Sci2024;11:e2405880 PMCID:PMC11496995

[147] Wang T,Yu T.PVA/chitosan-based multifunctional hydrogels constructed through multi-bonding synergies and their application in flexible sensors.Carbohydr Polym2025;350:123034

[148] Su C,Wang L.Green double crosslinked starch-alginate hydrogel regulated by sustained calcium ion-gluconolactone release for human motion monitoring.Chem Eng J2023;455:140653

[149] Zhang Y,Xia F.Gelatin/polyacrylamide ionic conductive hydrogel with skin temperature-triggered adhesion for human motion sensing and body heat harvesting.Nano Energy2022;104:107977

[150] Xie T,Ning C.Dual-network carboxymethyl chitosan conductive hydrogels for multifunctional sensors and high-performance triboelectric nanogenerators.Carbohydr Polym2024;333:121960

[151] Lin H,Zhang W.Strong and tough anisotropic short-chain chitosan-based hydrogels with optimized sensing properties for flexible strain sensors.Carbohydr Polym2025;348:122781

[152] Gao J,Xu L,Bi H.Transparent multifunctional cellulose-based conductive hydrogel for wearable strain sensors and arrays.Carbohydr Polym2024;329:121784

[153] Zhang Y,Ye Y.All-cellulose hydrogel with ultrahigh stretchability exceeding 40000%.Mater Today2024;74:67-76

[154] Song Y,Liu T.Design of a flexible cellulose framework via supramolecular structure modulation and its application in hydrogel sensors.Carbohydr Polym2026;373:124591

[155] Koch SM,Müller FJ.Anisotropic wood-hydrogel composites: Extending mechanical properties of wood towards soft materials’ applications.Mater Today Bio2023;22:100772 PMCID:PMC10477686

[156] Chen C,Zhu S.Structure–property–function relationships of natural and engineered wood.Nat Rev Mater2020;5:642-66

[157] Spies PA,Horbelt N.Cellulose lattice strains and stress transfer in native and delignified wood.Carbohydr Polym2022;296:119922

[158] Li J,Zhu JY,Hu L.In situ wood delignification toward sustainable applications.Acc Mater Res2021;2:606-20

[159] Xiong J,Hu Y,Wang S.An anisotropic conductive hydrogel for strain sensing and breath detection.Appl Mater Today2023;34:101909

[160] Yang B,Zhou X.Strong and crack-resistant hydrogel derived from pomelo peel for highly sensitive wearable sensors.Chem Eng J2022;431:134094

[161] Kong W,Jia C.Muscle-inspired highly anisotropic, strong, ion-conductive hydrogels.Adv Mater2021;33:e2103732

[162] Nie K,Tang R.Anisotropic, flexible wood hydrogels and wrinkled, electrodeposited film electrodes for highly sensitive, wide-range pressure sensing.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:43024-31

[163] Nair RR,Kim J,Kim D.Recent progress in the development of cellulose-derived organic-nanopolymer and coordination network platforms for application as optical chemosensors.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2025;8:1078

[164] Yan G,Ma S.Catechol-based all-wood hydrogels with anisotropic, tough, and flexible properties for highly sensitive pressure sensing.Chem Eng J2022;427:131896

[165] Qin Q,Duan G.“Bottom-up” and “top-down” strategies toward strong cellulose-based materials.Chem Soc Rev2024;53:9306-43

[166] Rai R,Dhar P.Life cycle assessment of transparent wood production using emerging technologies and strategic scale-up framework.Sci Total Environ2022;846:157301

[167] Lu Y,Deng F.Programmable and multi-stimuli responsive hydrogel actuator mediated by nanocellulose with intrinsic self-sensing capacity.Carbohydr Polym2026;371:124527

[168] Zhao Z,Wang Y.Vascular bundle-inspired MXene ion-conducting microchannels enabled tough ionic hydrogels with high-sensitivity sensing and high-efficiency mechanical-electric conversion.Nano Energy2023;113:108540

[169] Nie X,Ding X.Highly elastic, fatigue-resistant, antibacterial, conductive, and nanocellulose-enhanced hydrogels with selenium nanoparticles loading as strain sensors.Carbohydr Polym2024;334:122068

[170] Zheng C,Lu Y.A stretchable, self-healing conductive hydrogels based on nanocellulose supported graphene towards wearable monitoring of human motion.Carbohydr Polym2020;250:116905

[171] Ma Y,Yue Y.Nanocellulose-mediated bilayer hydrogel actuators with thermo-responsive, shape memory and self-sensing performances.Carbohydr Polym2024;335:122067

[172] Lu Y,Ding Q.Environment‐tolerant ionic hydrogel–elastomer hybrids with robust interfaces, high transparence, and biocompatibility for a mechanical–thermal multimode sensor.InfoMat2023;5:e12409

[173] Zhang Z,Wang X,Zhang X.Synthesis of mimicking plant cell wall‐like anti‐swelling hydrogels based on a “bottom‐up” strategy and their application in osmotic energy harvesting.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2502946

[174] Yang Y,Zou Y.Polymerizable deep eutectic solvent assisted facile preparation of lignin hydrogel with high transparency, adhesion and environmental tolerance for flexible electronics.Chem Eng J2025;526:171440

[175] Luo F,Samorì P.Design strategies and emerging applications of high‐performance flexible piezoresistive pressure sensors.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e75473

[176] Yang L,Fei X.Revealing the interrelation between hydrogen bonds and interfaces in graphene/PVA composites towards highly electrical conductivity.Chem Eng J2020;383:123126

[177] Shen C,Guo L.In-situ heterojunction on high-aspect-ratio cellulose nanocrystals for long-range charge transport in e-skin.Carbohydr Polym2026;383:125305

[178] Gu R,Zou Y.Cellulose nanocrystal-modified hydrogel wearable sensor with self-healing function from dynamic bond and controllable dual hydrogen-bond crosslinking.Carbohydr Polym2025;363:123760

[179] Zhang H,Lee JH.Mechanochromic optical/electrical skin for ultrasensitive dual-signal sensing.ACS Nano2023;17:5921-34

[180] Li Y,Gao X.All‐weather self‐powered intelligent traffic monitoring system based on a conjunction of self‐healable piezoresistive sensors and triboelectric nanogenerators.Adv Funct Mater2023;33:2308845

[181] Shi W,Chen J.Stretchable, self-healing, and bioactive hydrogel with high-functionality N,N'-bis(acryloyl)cystamine dynamically bonded Ag@polydopamine crosslinkers for wearable sensors.Adv Sci2024;11:e2404451 PMCID:PMC11425271

[182] Zhu H,Liu X.Mechanically compliant and stable hydrogel interfaces for long‐term dynamic pressure detection toward intelligent sports training.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e22847

[183] Li Y,Luo Y.Polydopamine-reinforced hemicellulose-based multifunctional flexible hydrogels for human movement sensing and self-powered transdermal drug delivery.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2023;15:5883-96

[184] Zhang C,Dong L.Piezoelectric hydrogels: hybrid material design, properties, and biomedical applications.Small2024;20:e2310110

[185] Bai Z,Zhai Q,Sang L.Frontier applications of piezoelectric hydrogels: principles, design strategies, and translational perspectives.Mater Design2026;266:116155

[186] Rahmani P,Sakorikar T,Mendoza-Apodaca Y.Liquid metal nanoparticles physically hybridized with cellulose nanocrystals initiate and toughen hydrogels with piezoionic properties.ACS Nano2024;18:8038-50

[187] Guan QF,Han ZM.Sustainable cellulose-nanofiber-based hydrogels.ACS Nano2021;15:7889-98

[188] Pan L,Jin Q,Zhou Z.Self-poled PVDF/recycled cellulose composite fibers utilizing cellulose nanocrystals to induce PVDF β-phase formation through wet-spinning as a flexible fabric piezoelectric sensor.Chem Eng J2024;479:147742

[189] Wang L,Lian W.Flexible layered cotton cellulose-based nanofibrous membranes for piezoelectric energy harvesting and self-powered sensing.Carbohydr Polym2022;275:118740

[190] Zhang C,Huerta A,Sun M.Self-polarized piezoelectric hydrogels with flexible-rigid networks for ultrasensitive multifunctional sensors.ACS Mater Lett2025;7:2607-16

[191] Zhang C,Sun M,Kwon SH.Nature-inspired helical piezoelectric hydrogels for energy harvesting and self-powered human-machine interfaces.Nano Energy2025;136:110755

[192] Katta V,Umapathi R,Sanasi PD.Chitosan-loaded lead-free sodium bismuth titanate composite flexible triboelectric nanogenerator for energy harvesting, biomechanical sensing, and smart-path touch-lighting for safe walking applications.Small2026;22:e12352

[193] Mo X,Wang H.High‐performance hydrogels for triboelectric tactile sensing: principles, design, and applications.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e74686

[194] Umapathi R,Patil SR.Human motion driven energy harvesting system enabled by a flexible PVA/g-C₃N₄ triboelectric nanogenerator.Ceram Int2026;In Press:

[195] Luo Q,Bai Y.Self-powered triboelectric wireless sensors for embodied intelligence.Nat Sens2026;1:283-4

[196] Cui X,Liu T.Cellulosic triboelectric elastomers for energy harvesting and emerging applications.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2507912

[197] Zhu S,Du G.Customizing temperature-resistant cellulosic triboelectric materials for energy harvesting and emerging applications.Nano Energy2024;124:109449

[198] Du G,Liu Y.Fabrication of advanced cellulosic triboelectric materials via dielectric modulation.Adv Sci2023;10:e2206243 PMCID:PMC10214270

[199] Liu A,Wu W.Surface amination modification of cellulose hydrogels for enhancing triboelectric performance of extreme environment-resistant triboelectric sensors.J Bioresour Bioprod2026;11:100214

[200] Qin Y,Liu Y.Stretchable triboelectric self‐powered sweat sensor fabricated from self‐healing nanocellulose hydrogels.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2201846

[201] Li N,Su Z.Rapid fabrication of xylan-based hydrogel by graft polymerization via a dynamic lignin-Fe³⁺ plant catechol system.Carbohydr Polym2021;269:118306

[202] Sun D,Sun S.Transparent, self‐adhesive, conductive organohydrogels with fast gelation from lignin‐based self‐catalytic system for extreme environment‐resistant triboelectric nanogenerators.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2201335

[203] Yuan J,Qin Y.Anti-freeze, anti-dehydrating and stretchable triboelectric materials enabled by covalent-like hydrogen bond interaction.Nano Energy2024;131:110215

[204] Li Z,Xu Y.Green and sustainable cellulose-derived humidity sensors: a review.Carbohydr Polym2021;270:118385

[205] Chen L,Yu H.Nanocellulose-based functional materials for advanced energy and sensor applications.Nano Res2022;15:7432-52

[206] Wang Z,Cai H.Robust versatile nanocellulose/polyvinyl alcohol/carbon dot hydrogels for biomechanical sensing.Carbohydr Polym2021;259:117753

[207] Zhang X,Wang Y.Tough liquid‐free ionic conductive elastomers with robust adhesion and self‐healing properties for ionotronic devices.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2307400

[208] Huang C,Zhang Y.Wide-detection-range, highly-sensitive, environmental-friendly and flexible cellulose-based capacitive humidity sensor.Carbohydr Polym2025;358:123507

[209] Mo F,Lin S,Wang Y.A review of conductive hydrogel-based wearable temperature sensors.Adv Healthc Mater2024;13:e2401503

[210] Xu Z,Pang X.Rapid gelation of mechanical robust, conductive, and self-healing lignocellulosic nanofibrils hydrogel toward flexible sensor over a broad temperature spectrum.Chem Eng J2025;503:158243

[211] Li X,Wei Z.High-performance hydrogel-based temperature sensor by integrating ion channels and stabilized ion gradients.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e74877

[212] Pang J,Xu Y.Skin-inspired cellulose conductive hydrogels with integrated self-healing, strain, and thermal sensitive performance.Carbohydr Polym2020;240:116360

[213] Zhang W,Huang L,Zhao J.A stretchable, environmentally tolerant, and photoactive liquid metal/MXene hydrogel for high performance temperature monitoring, human motion detection and self-powered application.Nano Energy2023;117:108875

[214] Cheng X,Chen P,Lu A.Regulation of thermal migration channel in cellulose hydrogel to enhance thermopower.Chem Eng J2024;498:155161

[215] Wu J,Liu S,Guo Y.Anti-freezing, long-term-usability conductive organo-hydrogels containing lignin for the manufacture of high-performance flexible strain and temperature sensors.Int J Biol Macromol2025;306:141662

[216] Liu X,Zheng LY,Wang LJ.Nature’s answer to flexible electronics: polysaccharide-based hydrogel sensors.Carbohydr Polym2025;366:123925

[217] Ding Q,Zhou Z.Stretchable, self‐healable, and breathable biomimetic iontronics with superior humidity‐sensing performance for wireless respiration monitoring.SmartMat2023;4:e1147

[218] Zhang Z,Chen H.Scalable fabrication of uniform fast‐response humidity field sensing array for respiration recognition and contactless human‐machine interaction.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2502583

[219] Heng W,Bachagha K.Review on design strategies and applications of flexible cellulose‑carbon nanotube functional composites.Carbohydr Polym2023;321:121306

[220] Bian Z,Sun H.Transparent, intrinsically stretchable cellulose nanofiber-mediated conductive hydrogel for strain and humidity sensing.Carbohydr Polym2023;301:120300

[221] Song L,Huang J.Conductive hydrogels with HPC additions for humidity sensing and temperature response.Chem Eng J2025;506:160000

[222] Zhang J,Xu T.Strategies, mechanism, and prospects for wood biomass-based intelligent food packaging materials.Trends Food Sci Technol2025;160:105022

[223] Jiao X,Simayi R.Preparation and performance of multifunctional composite hydrogel based on xanthate lignin/chitosan/poly(acrylic acid) with underwater adhesion and sensing properties.ACS Appl Polym Mater2024;6:14726-39

[224] Gu Z,Chen X.Polyvinyl alcohol modified plant fiber hydrogel pressure and strain dual-model sensors for biomedical signal detection.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2025;8:1165

[225] Zhu J,Yan W.Pathways toward wearable and high-performance sensors based on hydrogels: toughening networks and conductive networks.Natl Sci Rev2023;10:nwad180 PMCID:PMC10411675

[226] Wei Q,Zhang T.A “PHASE” strategy for preparing flexible piezoelectric polylactic acid double network hydrogel sensors.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e25548

[227] Sun S,Zheng H.Temperature-arousing thermoelectric sensor based on oriented cellulose fibrils toward self-powered active fire protection.Chem Eng J2026;535:175288

[228] Wang Q,Guo J.Lignin and cellulose derivatives-induced hydrogel with asymmetrical adhesion, strength, and electriferous properties for wearable bioelectrodes and self-powered sensors.Chem Eng J2021;414:128903

[229] Wei D,Lv S.One-step fabrication of dual-network cellulose-based hydrogel sensors with high flexibility and conductivity under ZnCl₂ solvent method for flexible sensing properties.Int J Biol Macromol2025;295:139440

[230] Lao J,Zhang Y.Intrinsically adhesive and conductive hydrogel bridging the bioelectronic-tissue interface for biopotentials recording.ACS Nano2025;19:7755-66

[231] Qu X,Gan D,Ni Z.Tissue-adaptable hydrogel for mechanically compliant bioelectronic interfaces.Nano Lett2025;25:4759-66

[232] Xu H,Zhang Y.A fully integrated, standalone stretchable device platform with in-sensor adaptive machine learning for rehabilitation.Nat Commun2023;14:7769 PMCID:PMC10682047

[233] Zhou J,Huang J.Multiscale and hierarchical wrinkle enhanced graphene/Ecoflex sensors integrated with human-machine interfaces and cloud-platform.Npj Flex Electron2022;6:55 PMCID:PMC9255543

[234] Ali M,Das R,Basdogan I.A flexible and biodegradable piezoelectric‐based wearable sensor for non‐invasive monitoring of dynamic human motions and physiological signals.Adv Mater Technol2023;8:2300347

[235] Wu Z,Zhang Y.Lignocellulose dissociation with biological pretreatment towards the biochemical platform: a review.Mater Today Bio2022;16:100445 PMCID:PMC9535326

[236] Wang S,Wang S.Strong, tough, ionic conductive, and freezing-tolerant all-natural hydrogel enabled by cellulose-bentonite coordination interactions.Nat Commun2022;13:3408 PMCID:PMC9213515

[237] Li N,Buccoli L.Multiscale mechanical properties and enhancement mechanism of cellulose-composited hydrogels.Carbohydr Polym2025;357:123421

[238] Zhou Y,Lu Z.Super-strong hydrogel reinforced by an interconnected hollow microfiber network via regulating the water-cellulose-copolymer interplay.Sci Bull2025;70:923-33

[239] Seidi F,Huang Y,Crespy D.Chemistry of lignin and condensed tannins as aromatic biopolymers.Chem Soc Rev2025;54:3140-232

[240] Lu X,Shi Y.A review on lignin antioxidants: their sources, isolations, antioxidant activities and various applications.Int J Biol Macromol2022;210:716-41

[241] Liu B,Zeng J.Acid-catalyzed phenolation of lignin with tea polyphenol: enhancing uv resistance and oxidation resistance for potential applications.Int J Biol Macromol2024;267:131462

[242] Ren K,Wen C.Lignin-based conductive hydrogels with plasticity, recyclability, and self-adhesion as flexible strain sensors for human motion monitoring.ACS Appl Polym Mater2024;6:5297-307

[243] Zhou Q,Gao D.Human soft tissues-like PVA/cellulose hydrogels with multifunctional properties towards flexible electronics applications.Carbohydr Polym2025;357:123425

[244] Bai C,Liu Q.A self-powered hydrogel electronic skin with decoupled multimodal sensing for closed-loop human-machine interactions.Nat Commun2026;17:2675 PMCID:PMC13009196

[245] Chen Y,Wang Y.Skin-adhesive lignin-grafted-polyacrylamide/hydroxypropyl cellulose hydrogel sensor for real-time cervical spine bending monitoring in human-machine interface.Int J Biol Macromol2023;247:125833

[246] Hao Y,Jiang W.Lignin-silver triggered multifunctional conductive hydrogels for skinlike sensor applications.Int J Biol Macromol2022;221:1282-93

[247] Bai L,Sun X.Antifreeze proteins and surface-modified cellulose nanocrystals for designing anti-freezing conductive hydrogel sensors.Carbohydr Polym2025;350:123056

[248] Xu Y,Yang S.Metal ion cross-linked cellulose/lignin nanocomposite films: a pathbreaking approach toward high-performance sustainable biomaterials.ACS Nano2025;19:9801-13

[249] Cheng G,Liu X,Wei S.Mussel-inspired adhesive and tough hydrogel for drug release based on lignin-containing cellulose nanofiber.Int J Biol Macromol2025;306:141458

[250] Baraka F,Velazco-Cabral I,Labidi J.Physically cross-linked cellulose nanofiber (LCNF/CNF) hydrogels: impact of the composition on mechanical and swelling properties.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2025;8:1218

[251] Chen L,Chen J.Ultrastretchable, antifreezing, and high-performance strain sensor based on a muscle-inspired anisotropic conductive hydrogel for human motion monitoring and wireless transmission.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:43833-43

[252] Ren J,Wang Z.An anti‐swellable hydrogel strain sensor for underwater motion detection.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2107404

[253] Zhou Q,Hu J.Lignin-containing nanofiber-reinforced flexible strain sensors with excellent mechanical properties and ionic conductivity for human motion detection.Int J Biol Macromol2025;300:140322

[254] Gao Y,Yeo JC.Flexible hybrid sensors for health monitoring: materials and mechanisms to render wearability.Adv Mater2020;32:e1902133

[255] Zhao L,Gao S.Stretchable, self-adhesive, and conductive hemicellulose-based hydrogels as wearable strain sensors.Int J Biol Macromol2024;282:137313

[256] Zhao L,Yu H,Lai C.A dual crosslinking strategy to fabricate hemicellulose-based tough hydrogels for flexible sensors and triboelectric nanogenerator applications.Int J Biol Macromol2025;321:146127

[257] Chen R,Chu D,Lu Y.Self-powered hydrogel wearable bioelectronics.Nano Energy2024;128:109960

[258] Sun W,Hua W.Self-strengthening and conductive cellulose composite hydrogel for high sensitivity strain sensor and flexible triboelectric nanogenerator.Int J Biol Macromol2023;248:125900

[259] Yu M,Yang Q.Rapid preparation of tough, anti-freezing, and conductive hydrogel via lignin-Fe³⁺ self-catalytic system for extreme environment-resistant triboelectric nanogenerator.Chem Eng J2025;505:159105

[260] Mi Y,Sun Y,Cao X.Synergistic, biomass-enhanced hydrogels for sustainable, all-in-one sensing and energy-autonomous bioelectronics.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e74956

[261] Liang Q,Sun X.Highly stretchable hydrogels as wearable and implantable sensors for recording physiological and brain neural signals.Adv Sci2022;9:e2201059 PMCID:PMC9165511

[262] Yi X,Liu S.An environmentally benign chelative biosorbent for efficient adsorption remediation of tetracycline contamination.Collagen Leather2025;7:230

[263] Zhang F,Pang X,Zhang W.Fabrication and characterization of the bio-based nanofiber solid facial mask with moisturizing and antioxidant efficacy.Collagen Leather2025;7:204

[264] Zhang Z,Wang H.A 10-micrometer-thick nanomesh-reinforced gas-permeable hydrogel skin sensor for long-term electrophysiological monitoring.Sci Adv2024;10:eadj5389 PMCID:PMC10781413

[265] Liu Y,Hu Z.Applications of cellulose-based flexible self-healing sensors for human health monitoring.Nano Energy2024;127:109790

[266] Song Y,Hao S.Next-gen cellulose therapeutics: fusing in vivo/in vitro data for precision healthcare.Prog Mater Sci2026;161:101700

[267] Jing X,Mi H.Highly transparent, stretchable, and rapid self-healing polyvinyl alcohol/cellulose nanofibril hydrogel sensors for sensitive pressure sensing and human motion detection.Sens Actuators B Chem2019;295:159-67

[268] Wei J,Shi L,Lu H.High-performance conductive double-network hydrogel base on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for multifunctional wearable sensors.Carbohydr Polym2025;350:122943

[269] Zhao Y,Wang Y.Mechanically resilient, freeze-resistant, and antibacterial carboxymethyl cellulose/phytic acid hydrogel sensors for respiratory monitoring.Int J Biol Macromol2026;337:149374

[270] Li X,Lao Y.A nanocellulose-based flexible multilayer sensor with high sensitivity to humidity and strain response for detecting human motion and respiration.Int J Biol Macromol2024;266:131004

[271] Wang X,Wang X.Hydrovoltaic technology: from mechanism to applications.Chem Soc Rev2022;51:4902-27

[272] Lal S,Hwang B.Surface charge-enhanced cellulose nanocrystal/polyvinyl alcohol/carbon nanotube composite for high-efficiency hydrovoltaic power generation and durable wearable health monitoring sensor.Nano Energy2025;142:111269

[273] Lal S,Lund A,Lim S.Sulfated cellulose nanocrystals into piezoelectricity- introducing a new material into piezoelectric energy harvesting and smart strain sensing for health monitoring applications.Adv Compos Hybrid Mater2026;9:1819

[274] Li J,Cheng X.Phase‐separation enhanced piezoionic effect in cellulose/alginate hydrogels for high‐sensitivity self‐powered sensing.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e75275

[275] Afewerki S.Unlocking the power of multicatalytic synergistic transformation: toward environmentally adaptable organohydrogel.Adv Mater2024;36:e2306657

[276] Wang J,Hsu Y.Rapid preparation of dynamic-crosslinked nanocomposite hydrogel sensors with efficiency self-healing and adhesion properties for elderly health and sleep management.Chem Eng J2024;480:148324

[277] He S,Wu X,Fang H.Novel flexible hydrogels based on carboxymethyl guar gum and polyacrylic acid for ultra-highly sensitive and reliable strain and pressure sensors.Carbohydr Polym2024;324:121515

[278] Zong J,Zang X.Intelligent electronic sensors enabled by metal-coordination reinforced lignin-based supramolecular hydrogels with remarkable mechanical performance.Chem Eng J2026;531:174055

[279] Han X,Che G,Li Y.Novel lignin hydrogel sensors with antiswelling, antifreezing, and anticreep properties.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2023;11:8255-70

[280] Porciuncula F,Kumar D.Wearable movement sensors for rehabilitation: a focused review of technological and clinical advances.PM R2018;10:S220-32 PMCID:PMC6700726

[281] Lin F,Lu B.Muscle‐inspired robust anisotropic cellulose conductive hydrogel for multidirectional strain sensors and implantable bioelectronics.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2416419

[282] Wang H,Luo Y.High-performance hydrogel sensors enabled multimodal and accurate human-machine interaction system for active rehabilitation.Adv Mater2024;36:e2309868

[283] Sapienza S,Giraitis M.Assessing the clinical utility of inertial sensors for home monitoring in Parkinson’s disease: a comprehensive review.NPJ Parkinsons Dis2024;10:161 PMCID:PMC11335938

[284] Yan G,Chen G.Highly flexible and broad-range mechanically tunable all-wood hydrogels with nanoscale channels via the hofmeister effect for human motion monitoring.Nanomicro Lett2022;14:84 PMCID:PMC8964865

[285] Sun Z,Dong C.Dual-mode sensor with saturated mechanochromic structural color enhanced by black conductive hydrogel for interactive rehabilitation monitoring.Nanomicro Lett2026;18:110 PMCID:PMC12790551

[286] Ding S,Wang Q.Multifunctional hydrogel sensors with dynamic covalent networks for machine learning-assisted Parkinson’s disease diagnosis and encrypted human-computer interaction.Mater Today Bio2025;35:102524 PMCID:PMC12639595

[287] Qiu Y,Wang Z.A soft biosensor with printable responsive hydrogel interfaces for detection and differentiation of blood circulation complications.Natl Sci Rev2026;13:nwag058 PMCID:PMC12980341

[288] Saleh AK,El-Sakhawy MA.Cellulose-based conductive materials for bioelectronics.ChemSusChem2025;18:e202401762

[289] Le TA.Hemicellulose-based sensors: when sustainability meets complexity.ACS Sens2024;9:4975-5001

[290] Suryaprabha T,Wu Y,Hwang B.Smart wearable and implantable biosensors for continuous health monitoring: materials, biocompatibility, and AI integration.npj Flex Electron2026;10:560

[291] Andrew LJ,MacLachlan MJ.Designing for degradation: transient devices enabled by (nano)cellulose.Adv Mater2025;37:e2401560 PMCID:PMC12138875

[292] Hu C,Liu S,Yin L.Recent development of implantable chemical sensors utilizing flexible and biodegradable materials for biomedical applications.ACS Nano2024;18:3969-95

[293] Tan Z,Yang B.Superelastic and highly sensitive biomass‐derived piezoresistive aerogels for deep‐learning‐assisted sensing.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:e11831

[294] Guo X,Yang Y,Liao Q.Cellulose-based hydrogel in flexible sensor.Curr Opin Electrochem2026;58:101870

[295] Liu Z,Bo R.A three-dimensionally architected electronic skin mimicking human mechanosensation.Science2024;384:987-94

[296] Zhang L,Wang S.Cellulose nanofiber-mediated manifold dynamic synergy enabling adhesive and photo-detachable hydrogel for self-powered E-skin.Nat Commun2024;15:3859 PMCID:PMC11078967

[297] Zhang X,Zhang L.Facile preparation of porous MXene/cellulose nanofiber composite for highly-sensitive flexible piezoresistive sensors in e-skin.Chem Eng J2025;505:159369

[298] Pyo S,Bae K,Kim J.Recent progress in flexible tactile sensors for human-interactive systems: from sensors to advanced applications.Adv Mater2021;33:e2005902

[299] Tang H,Chen B.In situ forming epidermal bioelectronics for daily monitoring and comprehensive exercise.ACS Nano2022;16:17931-47

[300] Xu A,Wang Y,Xie Y.Leaf‐inspired cellulose ionogels under spatial confinement with synergistically enhanced mechanical and sensing performance for flexible sensors.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e19010

[301] Qin X,Deng J.Tough, conductive hydrogels based on gelatin and oxidized sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as flexible sensors.Carbohydr Polym2024;335:121920

[302] Li W,Kang M.Wearable one-handed keyboard using hydrogel-based mechanical sensors for human-machine interaction.J Mater Sci Technol2024;201:130-8

[303] Fang S,Yang S.Bamboo‐basket‐inspired stepwise modulated hydrogel for multifunctional and extreme‐environment sensing.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e31290

[304] Gong X,Alam N.Tannic acid modified hemicellulose nanoparticle reinforced ionic hydrogels with multi-functions for human motion strain sensor applications.Ind Crops Prod2022;176:114412

[305] Zhao P,Song J.Integrated self-powered sensors for continuous foot health monitoring via laser-induced MXene-composited graphene hybrids from lignocellulose.Adv Sci2026;13:e16691 PMCID:PMC12786368

[306] Zhang X,Xu X,Kang H.Recent advancements in the synthesis, functionalization, and utilization of cellulose nanocrystals.Resour Chem Mater2025;4:100073

[307] Chen Q,Yang J.Cellulose ionogels: recent advancement in material, design, performance and applications.Resour Chem Mater2025;4:100088