A kirigami-enabled mechanoreceptor-inspired tactile sensor with spatially multidirectional force decoding

Abstract

Flexible tactile sensors capable of resolving complex mechanical stimuli are essential for advanced electronic skins. However, simultaneous perception of force magnitude, direction, and dynamic loading remains challenging without complex circuitry. Here, we report a kirigami-enabled, skin-inspired flexible sensor that achieves spatially distributed receptor-like responses through a three-dimensional (3D) laser-induced graphene (LIG) network. By transferring LIG from a kirigami-engineered polyimide substrate, we transform a planar conductive layer into a 3D architecture with height-dependent electrical characteristics. This structural differentiation enables spatially-encoded electromechanical transduction, where heterogeneous sensitivities across the 3D-LIG network translate simple stimuli into high-dimensional signal features. Consequently, the architecture inherently decouples force amplitude from dynamic loading through its non-linear deformation profiles. By further leveraging kirigami-induced anisotropy, the sensor achieves simultaneous resolution of multidirectional force vectors without requiring complex peripheral circuitry. The sensor demonstrates a linear pressure range of 0-35 kPa and high durability over 10,000 cycles. Leveraging this “structural coding” paradigm, the device enables high-accuracy recognition of surface roughness (95.34%) and gait patterns (91.77%) via machine learning. This work offers a robust strategy for biomimetic tactile sensing by integrating 3D structural engineering with intrinsic multidimensional signal decoupling. This design provides a promising foundation for intelligent prosthetics and human machine interfaces, achieving force vector resolution within a single structure.

Keywords

Kirigami-enabled tactile sensor / 3D graphene network / multidirectional force sensing / biomimetic electronic skin

References

[1] Zhang Y.,Yan Z.,Nan K..et al. A mechanically driven form of Kirigami as a route to 3D mesostructures in micro/nanomembranes Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2015 112 11757 64 PMC4586832

[2] Lumpkin E. A.,Caterina M. J.. Mechanisms of sensory transduction in the skin Nature 2007 445 858 65

[3] Johnson K. O.. The roles and functions of cutaneous mechanoreceptors Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2001 11 455 61

[4] Boutry C. M.,Negre M.,Jorda M..et al. A hierarchically patterned, bioinspired e-skin able to detect the direction of applied pressure for robotics Sci. Robot. 2018 3 9

[5] Wang X.,Dong L.,Zhang H.,Yu R.,Pan C.,Wang Z. L.. Recent progress in electronic skin Adv. Sci. 2015 2 1500169 PMC5115318

[6] Gong S.,Schwalb W.,Wang Y..et al. A wearable and highly sensitive pressure sensor with ultrathin gold nanowires Nat. Commun. 2014 5 3132

[7] Yang J. C.,Mun J.,Kwon S. Y.,Park S.,Bao Z.,Park S.. Electronic skin: recent progress and future prospects for skin-attachable devices for health monitoring, robotics, and prosthetics Adv. Mater. 2019 31 1904765

[8] Pang C.,Lee G. Y.,Kim T. I..et al. A flexible and highly sensitive strain-gauge sensor using reversible interlocking of nanofibres Nat. Mater. 2012 11 795 801

[9] Sun Q.,Seung W.,Kim B. J.,Seo S.,Kim S. W.,Cho J. H.. Active matrix electronic skin strain sensor based on piezopotential-powered graphene transistors Adv. Mater. 2015 27 3411 7

[10] Larson C.,Peele B.,Li S..et al. Highly stretchable electroluminescent skin for optical signaling and tactile sensing Science 2016 351 1071 4

[11] Someya T.,Bao Z.,Malliaras G. G.. The rise of plastic bioelectronics Nature 2016 540 379 85

[12] Yuk H, ; Lu B, ; Zhao X,. Hydrogel bioelectronics Chem. Soc. Rev. 2019 48 1642 67

[13] Mannsfeld S. C.,Tee B. C.,Stoltenberg R. M..et al. Highly sensitive flexible pressure sensors with microstructured rubber dielectric layers Nat. Mater. 2010 9 859 64

[14] Schwartz G.,Tee B. C.,Mei J..et al. Flexible polymer transistors with high pressure sensitivity for application in electronic skin and health monitoring Nat. Commun. 2013 4 1859

[15] Lee S.,Reuveny A.,Reeder J..et al. A transparent bending-insensitive pressure sensor Nat. Nanotechnol. 2016 11 472 8

[16] Xue C.,Zhao Y.,Liao Y.,Zhang H.. Bioinspired super-robust conductive hydrogels for machine learning-assisted tactile perception system Adv. Mater. 2025 37 e2416275

[17] Chen W.,Liu S.,Zhuang J..et al. Emerging metal oxide based triboelectric nanogenerators for energy collection and self-powered sensing Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 2026 167 101119

[18] Tee B. C.,Chortos A.,Berndt A..et al. A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor Science 2015 350 313 6

[19] Wang S.,Oh J. Y.,Xu J.,Tran H.,Bao Z.. Skin-inspired electronics: an emerging paradigm Acc. Chem. Res. 2018 51 1033 45

[20] Chen H.,Jing Y.,Lee J..et al. Human skin-inspired integrated multidimensional sensors based on highly anisotropic structures Mater. Horiz. 2020 7 2378 89

[21] Duan S.,Wei X.,Zhao F..et al. Bioinspired Young’s modulus-hierarchical E-skin with decoupling multimodality and neuromorphic encoding outputs to biosystems Adv. Sci. 2023 10 e2304121

[22] Liu Z.,Hu X.,Bo R..et al. A three-dimensionally architected electronic skin mimicking human mechanosensation Science 2024 384 987 94

[23] Lu C.,Chen X.,Zhang X.. Highly sensitive artificial skin perception enabled by a bio-inspired interface ACS Sens. 2023 8 1624 9

[24] Zhang Y.,Liu C.,Jia B..et al. Kirigami-inspired, three-dimensional piezoelectric pressure sensors assembled by compressive buckling npj Flex. Electron. 2024 8 23

[25] Li X.,Zhu P.,Zhang S..et al. A self-supporting, conductor-exposing, stretchable, ultrathin, and recyclable kirigami-structured liquid metal paper for multifunctional E-skin ACS Nano 2022 16 5909 19

[26] Xin X.,Wang Z.,Zeng C..et al. 4D printing bio-inspired chiral metamaterials for flexible sensors Compos. Part B Eng. 2024 286 111761

[27] Wang Y.,Wang C.. Buckling of ultrastretchable kirigami metastructures for mechanical programmability and energy harvesting Int. J. Solids Struct. 2021 213 93 102

[28] Won P.,Park J. J.,Lee T..et al. Stretchable and transparent kirigami conductor of nanowire percolation network for electronic skin applications Nano Lett. 2019 19 6087 96

[29] Meng K.,Xiao X.,Liu Z..et al. Kirigami-inspired pressure sensors for wearable dynamic cardiovascular monitoring Adv. Mater. 2022 34 e2202478

[30] Sreevanya G. V.,Lee S.,Cheon H.,Kim M.,Kim H.. Highly stretchable and flexible kirigami patterned silver electrodes for wearable electronics Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2024 378 115813

[31] Zhang S.,Wang S.,Zheng Y..et al. Coaxial 3D-Printed and kirigami-inspired deployable wearable electronics for complex body surfaces Compos. Sci. Technol. 2021 216 109041

[32] Jiao R.,Wang Z.,Wang R..et al. Deep learning based large‐area contact sensing for safe human–robot interaction using conformal kirigami structure‐enabled robotic E‐skin Adv. Intell. Syst. 2025 7 2400903

[33] Dang X.,Paulino G. H.. Kirigami Engineering: The Interplay Between Geometry and Mechanics Appl. Mech. Rev. 2025 77 050801

[34] Shu J.,Wang J.,Li Z.,Tong R. K.. Impact of pattern design on the performance of kirigami-inspired flexible piezoresistive strain sensors. In 2024 17th International Convention on Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology (i-CREATe), Shanghai, China, August 23-26, 2024; IEEE, 2024, pp 1-5.[DOI:10.1109/i-CREATe62067.2024.10776469]

[35] Wang Z.,Lei K.,Tang H..et al. STEV: stretchable triboelectric e-skin enabled proprioceptive vibration sensing for soft robot. In 2023 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), London, United Kingdom, May 29 - June 2, 2023; IEEE, 2023, pp 588-93

[36] Hu X.,Liu Z.,Tang Z..et al. Rational assembly of 3D network materials and electronics through tensile buckling Sci. Adv. 2025 11 eadz0718 PMC12422206

[37] Guo X.,Ni X.,Li J..et al. Designing mechanical metamaterials with kirigami-inspired, hierarchical constructions for giant positive and negative thermal expansion Adv. Mater. 2021 33 e2004919

[38] Meng Q.,Zhu J.,Kang C..et al. Kirigami-inspired flexible lithium-ion batteries via transformation of concentrated stress into segmented strain Small 2022 18 e2204745

[39] Yin Y.,Yu Y.,Li B.,Chen G.. Notch flexure as kirigami cut for tunable mechanical stretchability towards metamaterial application Int. J. Smart Nano Mater. 2022 13 203 17

[40] Guo W.,Lei Y.,Zhao X..et al. Printed-scalable microstructure BaTiO₃/ecoflex nanocomposite for high-performance triboelectric nanogenerators and self-powered human-machine interaction Nano Energy 2024 131 110324

[41] Song Y.,Liu T.,Hu A..et al. A haptic glove with flexible piezoresistive sensors made by graphene and polyurethane sponge for object recognition based on machine learning methods ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 2025 7 3448 60

[42] Beigh N. T.,Alcheikh N.. Vapor-induced porosity in graphene/PDMS: a scalable route to high-performance pressure sensors Microsyst. Nanoeng. 2025 11 181 PMC12508130

[43] Uzabakiriho P. C.,Fan J.,Wang M.,Shaw P.. Multiaxial flexible strain sensors with near-zero Poisson’s ratio Chem. Eng. J. 2025 522 167761

[44] Kang S.,Mete M.,Gandla S..et al. An 18-g haptic feedback ring with a three-axis force-sensing skin Nat. Electron. 2025 8 1234 46

[45] Xu M.,Zhang J.,Dong C..et al. Simultaneous isotropic omnidirectional hypersensitive strain sensing and deep learning-assisted direction recognition in a biomimetic stretchable device Adv. Mater. 2025 37 e2420322