Soft alchemy: a comprehensive guide to chemical reactions for pneumatic soft actuation

Abstract

Soft robotics has emerged as a transformative field, leveraging bio-inspired novel actuation mechanisms to enable more adaptable, compliant, and sophisticated robotic systems. However, the portability of soft pneumatic actuators is typically constrained by the tethering to bulky power sources. This review offers a thorough analysis of autonomous power alternatives facilitated by chemical reactions for gas generation and absorption, a concept analogous to biological energy conversion processes. These bio-inspired strategies propel soft pneumatic actuators towards new horizons of autonomy and portability, essential for real-world applications. This comprehensive review explores the critical intersection of gas evolution reactions (GERs) and gas consumption reactions (GCRs) as a power source for pneumatic actuation in soft robotics. We here emphasize the importance and impact of bio-inspired design, control, efficiency, safety, and sustainability within soft robotics to not only mimic biological motions but to enhance them. This review explores the fundamentals of both pneumatic and chemically powered actuation, highlighting the need for careful consideration of reaction kinetics. Additionally, this work highlights key aspects of smart materials that draw from biological structures and response mechanisms, along with state-of-the-art techniques for precise pressure modulation. Finally, we chart prospective development pathways and provide a future outlook for bio-inspired soft robotics, emphasizing the transformative impact of integrating chemical actuation methods. This exploration underlines the quest for further autonomy in soft robotic systems and points towards the future opportunities in this exciting and fast-developing field.

Keywords

Soft robotics / chemistry / pneumatic actuation / design / chemical power source / oscillating systems / chemical reactions / chemically driven pneumatic actuation

References

[1] Bao G,Chen L.Soft robotics: academic insights and perspectives through bibliometric analysis.Soft Robot2018;5:229-41 PMCID:PMC5995266

[2] Jumet B,Sanchez V.A data-driven review of soft robotics.Adv Intell Syst2022;4:2100163

[3] Li M,Aghakhani A,Sitti M.Soft actuators for real-world applications.Nat Rev Mater2022;7:235-49 PMCID:PMC7612659

[4] Bresnahan TF.General purpose technologies ‘Engines of growth’?.J Econom1995;65:83-108

[5] Reuveny R.Leading sectors, lead economies, and economic growth.Rev Int Political Econ2001;8:689-719

[6] Wang Y,Low YY.Using early health economic modeling to inform medical innovation development: a soft robotic sock in poststroke patients in Singapore.Int J Technol Assess Health Care2023;39:e4

[7] Gariya N,Dobriyal R.A review on soft robotic technologies.AIP Conf Proc2023;2521:050004

[8] Stuttaford-Fowler A,Yang CY.Biomimicry in soft robotics actuation and locomotion. In: 2022 International Conference on System Science and Engineering (ICSSE); 2022 May 26-29; Taichung, Taiwan, China. IEEE; 2022. pp. 17-21.

[9] Whitesides GM.Soft robotics.Angew Chem Int Ed Engl2018;57:4258-73

[10] Hartmann F,Kaltenbrunner M.Becoming sustainable, the new frontier in soft robotics.Adv Mater2021;33:e2004413

[11] Villeda Hernandez M. Chemo-driven soft pneumatic actuation: from catalysts to neutralisation reactions for oscillating pneumatic systems. Bristol, United Kingdom: University of Bristol; 2023. Available from: https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/chemo-driven-soft-pneumatic-actuation. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[12] Hu D,Yang Y,Li D.A novel soft robotic glove with positive-negative pneumatic actuator for hand rehabilitation. In: 2020 IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM); 2020 Jul 6-9; Boston, MA, USA. IEEE; 2020. pp. 1840-7.

[13] Katzschmann RK,Rus D.Hydraulic autonomous soft robotic fish for 3D swimming. In: Hsieh M, Khatib O, Kumar V, editors. Experimental robotics. Cham: Springer; 2016. pp. 405-20.

[14] Galloway KC,Phillips B.Soft robotic grippers for biological sampling on deep reefs.Soft Robot2016;3:23-33 PMCID:PMC4997628

[15] Katzschmann RK,MacCurdy R.Exploration of underwater life with an acoustically controlled soft robotic fish.Sci Robot2018;3:eaar3449

[16] Sinatra NR,Vogt DM,Gruber DF.Ultragentle manipulation of delicate structures using a soft robotic gripper.Sci Robot2019;4:eaax5425

[17] Wang X,Zhou H,Wang MY.Development and evaluation of a robust soft robotic gripper for apple harvesting.Comput Electron Agric2023;204:107552

[18] Vaughan CP.Urinary incontinence in women.Ann Intern Med2020;172:ITC17-32

[19] Emery AEH.The muscular dystrophies.Lancet2002;359:687-95

[20] Petermann-Rocha F,Gray SR.Global prevalence of sarcopenia and severe sarcopenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle2022;13:86-99 PMCID:PMC8818604

[21] Roche ET,Wamala I.Soft robotic sleeve supports heart function.Sci Transl Med2017;9:eaaf3925

[22] Payne CJ,Bautista-Salinas D.Soft robotic ventricular assist device with septal bracing for therapy of heart failure.Sci Robot2017;2:eaan6736

[23] Simons MF,Le NH.B:Ionic glove: a soft smart wearable sensory feedback device for upper limb robotic prostheses.IEEE Robot Autom Lett2021;6:3311-6

[24] Payne CJ,Abah C.An implantable extracardiac soft robotic device for the failing heart: mechanical coupling and synchronization.Soft Robot2017;4:241-50

[25] Polygerinos P,Galloway KC,Walsh CJ.Soft robotic glove for combined assistance and at-home rehabilitation.Rob Auton Syst2015;73:135-43

[26] Helps T,Manns S,Rossiter J.Easy undressing with soft robotics. In: Giuliani M, Assaf T, Giannaccini M, editors. Towards autonomous robotic systems. Cham: Springer; 2018. pp. 79-90.

[27] Haynes AC,Crowe EM,Rossiter JM.A calming hug: design and validation of a tactile aid to ease anxiety.PLoS One2022;17:e0259838 PMCID:PMC8906645

[28] Morris L,Turton A.User perspectives on the future of mobility assistive devices: Understanding users’ assistive device experiences and needs.J Rehabil Assist Technol Eng2022;9:20556683221114790 PMCID:PMC9380214

[29] Li H,Zhou P,Xu Y.High-force soft pneumatic actuators based on novel casting method for robotic applications.Sens Actuators A Phys2020;306:111957

[30] Pagoli A,Corrales-ramon J,Lapusta Y.Review of soft fluidic actuators: classification and materials modeling analysis.Smart Mater Struct2022;31:013001

[31] Villeda-Hernandez M,Romero C,Dicker MPM.Chemically driven oscillating soft pneumatic actuation.Soft Robot2023;10:1159-70

[32] Wang J,Lee PS.Recent progress in artificial muscles for interactive soft robotics.Adv Mater2021;33:e2003088

[33] Hines L,Lum GZ.Soft actuators for small-scale robotics.Adv Mater2017;29:1603483

[34] Autumn K,Groff RE,Fearing R.Effective elastic modulus of isolated gecko setal arrays.J Exp Biol2006;209:3558-68

[35] Coyle S,Leduc P.Bio-inspired soft robotics: material selection, actuation, and design.Extrem Mech Lett2018;22:51-9

[36] Peng Y,Kawazoe A.Elastohydrodynamic friction of robotic and human fingers on soft micropatterned substrates.Nat Mater2021;20:1707-11

[37] Luo M,Tao W,Onal CD.Optimized design of a rigid kinematic module for antagonistic soft actuation. In: 2015 IEEE Conference on Technologies for Practical Robot Applications (TePRA); 2015 May 11-12; Woburn, MA, USA. IEEE; 2015. pp. 1-6.

[38] Hu W,Li W.A structural optimisation method for a soft pneumatic actuator.Robotics2018;7:24

[39] Jiao Z,Zou J,Pan M.Vacuum-powered soft pneumatic twisting actuators to empower new capabilities for soft robots.Adv Mater Technol2019;4:1800429

[40] Das B.Isometric pull-push strengths in workspace: 1. strength profiles.Int J Occup Saf Ergon2004;10:43-58

[41] Fahal IH,Bone JM.Physiological abnormalities of skeletal muscle in dialysis patients.Nephrol Dial Transplant1997;12:119-27

[42] Nilsen T,Eriksen CS,Mowinckel P.Grip force and pinch grip in an adult population: reference values and factors associated with grip force.Scand J Occup Ther2012;19:288-96

[43] Ling L,Thesleff P.Solid-sphere test for examination of anal sphincter strength.Scand J Gastroenterol1984;19:960-4

[44] Xu HQ,Zhou ZJ.Review of: Retentive capacity of power output and linear versus non-linear mapping of power loss in the isotonic muscular endurance test.Sci Rep2021;11:22677

[45] Yap HK,Yeow C.High-force soft printable pneumatics for soft robotic applications.Soft Robot2016;3:144-58

[46] Walpole SC,Edwards P,Stevens G.The weight of nations: an estimation of adult human biomass.BMC Public Health2012;12:439 PMCID:PMC3408371

[47] Suulker C,Althoefer K. A fabric soft robotic exoskeleton with novel elastic band integrated actuators for hand rehabilitation. arXiv. [Preprint.] Dec 14, 2022 [accessed 2024 Mar 27]. Available from: https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.07206.

[48] Baeten J,Boedrij S,Claesen E.Autonomous fruit picking machine: a robotic apple harvester. In: Laugier C, Siegwart R, editors. Field and service robotics. Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer; 2008. pp. 531-9.

[49] Liu Z,Karydis K.SoRX: a soft pneumatic hexapedal robot to traverse rough, steep, and unstable terrain. In: 2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA);2020 May 31 - Aug 31; Paris, France. IEEE; 2020. pp. 420-6.

[50] Hashem R,Cheng LK.Design and characterization of a bellows-driven soft pneumatic actuator.IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron2021;26:2327-38

[51] Chen G,Ding S,Ji A.Design and test of an active pneumatic soft wrist for soft grippers.Actuators2022;11:311

[52] Son H,Na Y.4D multiscale origami soft robots: a review.Polymers2022;14:4235 PMCID:PMC9571758

[53] Ai C,Xu L.Current development on origami/kirigami-inspired structure of creased patterns toward robotics.Adv Eng Mater2021;23:2100473

[54] Jin L,Deng B,Bertoldi K.Kirigami-inspired inflatables with programmable shapes.Adv Mater2020;32:e2001863

[55] Melancon D,García-Mora CJ,Bertoldi K.Multistable inflatable origami structures at the metre scale.Nature2021;592:545-50

[56] Melancon D,Kamp LM,Bertoldi K.Inflatable origami: multimodal deformation via multistability.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2201891

[57] Polygerinos P,Wang Z.Towards a soft pneumatic glove for hand rehabilitation. In: 2013 IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems; 2013 Nov 3-7; Tokyo, Japan. IEEE; 2013. pp. 1512-7.

[58] De Benedictis C, Franco W, Maffiodo D, Ferraresi C. Hand rehabilitation device actuated by a pneumatic muscle. In: Aspragathos N, Koustoumpardis P, Moulianitis V, editors. Advances in service and industrial robotics. Cham: Springer; 2019. pp. 102-11.

[59] Raparelli T,Durante F,Raimondi P.First clinical investigation on a pneumatic lumbar unloading orthosis. In: 2007 IEEE/ICME International Conference on Complex Medical Engineering; 2007 May 23-27; Beijing, China. IEEE; 2007. pp. 1327-30.

[60] Ahmadjou A,Zareinejad M.A compact valveless pressure control source for soft rehabilitation glove.Int J Med Robot2021;17:e2298

[61] Kim SJ,Park J.Design of a portable pneumatic power source with high output pressure for wearable robotic applications.IEEE Robot Autom Lett2018;3:4351-8

[62] Chun HTD,Sayed ME,Stokes AA.Towards more energy efficient pneumatic soft actuators using a port-hamiltonian approach. In: 2019 2nd IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft); 2019 Apr 14-18; Seoul, Korea (South). IEEE; 2019. pp. 277-82.

[63] Gonzalez D,Voyles RM,Newell B.Characterization of 3D printed pneumatic soft actuator.Sens Actuators A Phys2022;334:113337

[64] Robertson MA,Florez JM.Soft pneumatic actuator fascicles for high force and reliability.Soft Robot2017;4:23-32 PMCID:PMC5346960

[65] Wilkening A,Ivlev O. Model-based pressure and torque control for innovative pneumatic soft-actuators. In: 7th International Fluid Power Conference. 2010. pp. 1-12. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Oleg-Ivlev/publication/267859903_Model-Based_Pressure_and_Torque_Control_for_Innovative_Pneumatic_Soft-Actuators/links/54ae4c6e0cf24aca1c6f90c7/Model-Based-Pressure-and-Torque-Control-for-Innovative-Pneumatic-Soft-Actuators.pdf. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[66] Breitman P,Gat AD.Fluid mechanics of pneumatic soft robots.Soft Robot2021;8:519-30

[67] Wehner M,Mengüç Y.Pneumatic energy sources for autonomous and wearable soft robotics.Soft Robot2014;1:263-74

[68] Niiyama R,Kim S.Pouch motors: printable/inflatable soft actuators for robotics. In: 2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA); 2014 May 31 - Jun 7; Hong Kong, China. IEEE; 2014. pp. 6332-7.

[69] Diteesawat RS,Taghavi M.Electro-pneumatic pumps for soft robotics.Sci Robot2021;6:eabc3721

[70] Wehner M,Fitzgerald DJ.An integrated design and fabrication strategy for entirely soft, autonomous robots.Nature2016;536:451-5

[71] Kim KR,Kim KS.Application of chemical reaction based pneumatic power generator to robot finger. In. 2013 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems; 2013 Nov 3-7; Tokyo, Japan. IEEE; 2013. pp. 4906-11.

[72] Boyle R. A defence of the doctrine touching the spring and weight of the air propos’d by Mr. R. Boyle in his new physico-mechanical experiments, against the objections of Franciscus Linus; wherewith the objector’s funicular hypothesis is also examin’d, by the author of those experiments. Available from: https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A28956.0001.001?view=toc. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[73] Gay-Lussac LJ. The expansion of gases by heat. Available from: https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/gaygas.html. [Last accessed on 29 March 2024]

[74] Avogadro A. Essay on a manner of determining the relative masses of the elementary molecules of bodies, and the proportions in which they enter into these compounds. 1811. Available from: https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/avogadro.html. [Last accessed on 29 March 2024]

[75] Lee J,Park H.Bioinspired soft robotic fish for wireless underwater control of gliding locomotion.Adv Intell Syst2022;4:2100271

[76] Silbey RJ,Papadantonakis GA. Physical chemistry. John Wiley & Sons; 2022. Available from: https://books.google.com/books/about/Physical_Chemistry.html?id=SMd3NAEACAAJ. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[77] Atkins P,Rourke J,Armstrong F. Shriver and Atkins’ inorganic chemistry. 5th ed. Oxford University Press; 2009. Available from: https://books.google.com/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=tUmcAQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=Atkins+P,+Overton+T,+Rourke+J,+Weller+M,+Armstrong+F.+Shriver+and+Atkins%E2%80%99+inorganic+chemistry&ots=i47SGsARce&sig=-iOikgfZRVmAH2D04fTFWonHSFg. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[78] Adami M.On-board pneumatic pressure generation methods for soft robotics applications.Actuators2019;8:2

[79] Tolley MT,Mosadegh B.A resilient, untethered soft robot.Soft Robot2014;1:213-23

[80] Prince JC,Williams FA.A reduced reaction mechanism for the combustion of n-butane.Combust Flame2017;175:27-33

[81] Warnatz J. The mechanism of high temperature combustion of propane and butane.Combust Sci Technol1983;34:177-200

[82] Onal CD,Whitesides GM.Soft mobile robots with on-board chemical pressure generation. In: Christensen H, Khatib O, editors. Robotics research. Cham: Springer; 2017. pp. 525-40.

[83] Goldfarb M,Gogola M.Design and energetic characterization of a liquid-propellant-powered actuator for self-powered robots.IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron2003;8:254-62

[84] Okui M,Iikawa S,Nakamura T.A pneumatic power source using a sodium bicarbonate and citric acid reaction with pressure booster for use in mobile devices. In: 2017 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS); 2017 Sep 24-28; Vancouver, BC, Canada. IEEE; 2017, pp. 1040-5.

[85] Kitamori T,Nabae H.Untethered three-arm pneumatic robot using hose-free pneumatic actuator. In: 2016 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS); 2016 Oct 9-14; Daejeon, Korea (South). IEEE; 2016, pp. 543-8.

[86] Hosono M,Sato M,Izumi T.A system utilizing metal hydride actuators to achieve passive motion of toe joints for prevention of pressure ulcers: a pilot study.Rehabil Res Pract2012;2012:541383 PMCID:PMC3350992

[87] Nishikawa Y.A design of fully soft robot actuated by gas-liquid phase change.Adv Robot2019;33:567-75

[88] Shepherd RF,Freake J.Using explosions to power a soft robot.Angew Chem Int Ed Engl2013;52:2892-6

[89] Heisser RH,Peretz O.Valveless microliter combustion for densely packed arrays of powerful soft actuators.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2021;118:e2106553118 PMCID:PMC8488685

[90] Timm S,Florian A.High-to-low CO₂ acclimation reveals plasticity of the photorespiratory pathway and indicates regulatory links to cellular metabolism of Arabidopsis.PLoS One2012;7:e42809 PMCID:PMC3422345

[91] Gilbert PUPA,Boekelheide N.Biomineralization: integrating mechanism and evolutionary history.Sci Adv2022;8:eabl9653 PMCID:PMC8906573

[92] Ciria-Recasens M,Coll-Batet M.Comparison of the effects of ossein-hydroxyapatite complex and calcium carbonate on bone metabolism in women with senile osteoporosis: a randomized, open-label, parallel-group, controlled, prospective study.Clin Drug Investig2011;31:817-24

[93] Atkins P,Keeler J. Atkins’ physical chemistry. Oxford University Press; 2018. Available from: https://books.google.com/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=4gamEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Atkins+P,+De+Paula+J,+Keeler+J.+Atkins%E2%80%99+physical+chemistry:+thermodynamics+and+kinetics&ots=g44xWkOtwq&sig=c0hqCEksMQCwIzpOw3qoav1wKfc#v=onepage&q&f=false. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[94] Mumallah NA. Factors influencing the reaction rate of hydrochloric acid and carbonate rock. In: the SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, Anaheim, California, February 1991. Available from: https://onepetro.org/SPEOCC/proceedings-abstract/91OCS/All-91OCS/SPE-21036-MS/53568. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[95] Bischoff KB.Effectiveness factors for general reaction rate forms.Aiche J1965;11:351-5

[96] Doménech P,Nielsen AT.Catalytic production of long-chain hydrocarbons suitable for jet-fuel use from fermentation-derived oxygenates.Green Chem2022;24:3461-74

[97] Wang S,Bao M,Xu P.Microbial production of hydrogen by mixed culture technologies: a review.Biotechnol J2020;15:e1900297

[98] Soccol CR,Larroche C.Fermentation processes engineering in the food industry. 1st ed. CRC Press; 2013, pp. 1-464.

[99] Dagle VL,Flake M.Integrated process for the catalytic conversion of biomass-derived syngas into transportation fuels.Green Chem2016;18:1880-91

[100] Chakik FE,Mikou M.Effect of operating parameters on hydrogen production by electrolysis of water.Int J Hydrogen Energy2017;42:25550-7

[101] Symons MCR.809. The mechanism of decomposition of potassium permanganate in alkaline solution and its bearing on oxidation by this reagent.J Chem Soc1953;3956-61

[102] Janudin N,Knight VF.Sensing techniques on determination of chlorine gas and free chlorine in water.J Sensors2022;2022:1898417

[103] Atkins P.Reactions: the private life of atoms. Oxford Academic; 2011. pp. 191.

[104] Giaretta JE,Oveissi F,Dehghani F.Flexible sensors for hydrogen peroxide detection: a critical review.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:20491-505 PMCID:PMC9104121

[105] Hu L,Miao J.Hydrogen-peroxide-fuelled platinum-nickel-SU-8 microrocket with steerable propulsion using an eccentric nanoengine.RSC Adv2016;6:102513-8

[106] Kopacz W,Kasztankiewicz A,Rarata G.Hydrogen peroxide - a promising oxidizer for rocket propulsion and its application in solid rocket propellants.FirePhysChem2022;2:56-66

[107] Castillo E.Road traffic accidents: air bag-related injuries and deaths. encyclopedia of forensic and legal medicine. Elsevier; 2016. pp. 162-74.

[108] Oxtoby DW,Butler LJ. Principles of modern chemistry. 8th ed. Cengage Learning; 2016. pp. 993. Available from: https://books.google.com/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=IQGEDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Oxtoby+DW,+Gillis+HP,+Butler+LJ.+Principles+of+Modern+Chemistry&ots=16S2ZBOdDy&sig=oapaY9RHEUzsBEcv5MhBKiaAVDA#v=onepage&q&f=false. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[109] Miriyev A,Lipson H.Soft material for soft actuators.Nat Commun2017;8:596 PMCID:PMC5605691

[110] Mehmandoust B,Vatani M.An efficient reliable method to estimate the vaporization enthalpy of pure substances according to the normal boiling temperature and critical properties.J Adv Res2014;5:261-9 PMCID:PMC4294737

[111] Cheng P,Jia J,Xie Q.Design of cylindrical soft vacuum actuator for soft robots.Smart Mater Struct2021;30:045020

[112] Miyazaki H,Tojo A.Application of low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy for renal biopsy specimens.Pathol Res Pract2012;208:503-9

[113] Tawk C,Spinks GM.Bioinspired 3D printable soft vacuum actuators for locomotion robots, grippers and artificial muscles.Soft Robot2018;5:685-94

[114] Yang D,Lossner E,Whitesides GM.Negative-pressure soft linear actuator with a mechanical advantage.Adv Mater Technol2017;2:1600164

[115] Fatahillah M,Rodrigue H.A novel soft bending actuator using combined positive and negative pressures.Front Bioeng Biotechnol2020;8:472 PMCID:PMC7248170

[116] Tawk C.A review of 3D-printable soft pneumatic actuators and sensors: research challenges and opportunities.Adv Intell Syst2021;3:2000223

[117] Pitzer KS.Thermodynamics of electrolytes. I. Theoretical basis and general equations.J Phys Chem1973;77:268-77

[118] Tortolero-Langarica JJA,Cupul-Magaña AL,Caselle JE.Coral calcification and carbonate production in the eastern tropical Pacific: the role of branching and massive corals in the reef maintenance.Geobiology2022;20:533-45

[119] Carlot J,Lenihan HS.Juvenile corals underpin coral reef carbonate production after disturbance.Glob Chang Biol2021;27:2623-32

[120] Wu S,Yin J.Fast thermal actuators for soft robotics.Soft Robot2022;9:1031-9

[121] Benard J.The oxidation of metals and alloys.Metall Rev1964;9:473-503

[122] Kofstad P.Oxidation of metals: determination of activation energies.Nature1957;179:1362-3

[123] Khanna AS.Chapter 6 - High temperature oxidation. Handbook of environmental degradation of materials. Elsevier; 2005. pp. 105-52.

[124] Young DJ. High temperature oxidation and corrosion of metals. 1st ed. Elsevier; 2008, pp. 593. Available from: https://shop.elsevier.com/books/high-temperature-oxidation-and-corrosion-of-metals/young/978-0-08-044587-8. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[125] Shemet V,Neshpor V.High-temperature oxidation behaviour of carbon materials in air.Carbon1993;31:1-6

[126] Nagai T,Shintake J.Characterization of sustainable robotic materials and finite element analysis of soft actuators under biodegradation.Front Robot AI2021;8:760485 PMCID:PMC8651864

[127] Laschi C.Bioinspired materials and approaches for soft robotics.MRS Bulletin2021;46:345-9

[128] Leigh GJ.Haber-bosch and other industrial processes. In: Smith BE, Richards RL, Newton WE, editors. Catalysts for nitrogen fixation. Dordrecht,Netherlands: Springer; 2004. pp. 33-54.

[129] Bullock RM.Catalysis without precious metals. Wiley; 2010.

[130] Rylander P. Catalytic hydrogenation over platinum metals. Elsevier;2012. Available from: https://books.google.com/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=NPgzMIHISv0C&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Rylander+P.+Catalytic+hydrogenation+over+platinum+metals+2012&ots=-8Fs853tLo&sig=OK3q0opAmHPc4xfhCiEroJV0BT8#v=onepage&q=Rylander%20P.%20Catalytic%20hydrogenation%20over%20platinum%20metals%202012&f=false. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[131] Ottaway MR,Haines PJ.The use of thermal methods in assessing the hazards and safety of chemical reactions.Anal Proc1986;23:116

[132] Etchells JC; Principal Specialist Inspector. The protection of reactors containing exothermic reactions: an HSE view. 1994. pp. 377-84. Available from: https://www.icheme.org/media/10390/xii-paper-25.pdf. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[133] Halliwell B,Dingfelder M.Hydroxyl radical is a significant player in oxidative DNA damage in vivo.Chem Soc Rev2021;50:8355-60 PMCID:PMC8328964

[134] Taylor CJ,Felton KC.A brief introduction to chemical reaction optimization.Chem Rev2023;123:3089-126 PMCID:PMC10037254

[135] Stoessel F.Thermal safety of chemical processes: risk assessment and process design. Wiley; 2008. pp. 1-374.

[136] Brent J,Dargan P.Critical care toxicology: diagnosis and management of the critically poisoned patient. Springer; 2017. pp. 1-3058.

[137] Shepherd RF,Choi W.Multigait soft robot.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2011;108:20400-3 PMCID:PMC3251082

[138] Joshi S.Pneumatic supply system parameter optimization for soft actuators.Soft Robot2021;8:152-63

[139] Soft robotics toolkit. Modeling and design tool for soft pneumatic actuators. Available from: https://softroboticstoolkit.com/book/modeling-soft-pneumatic-actuators. [Last accessed on 27 March 2024]

[140] Mourad AA,Al-marzouqi AH,Al-marzouqi MH.CO2 capture and ions removal through reaction with potassium hydroxide in desalination reject brine: Statistical optimization.Chem Eng Process Process Intensif2022;170:108722

[141] Ho H.Mineral carbonation using seawater for CO₂ sequestration and utilization: a review.Sep Purif Technol2023;307:122855

[142] Kucka L,Górak A.Kinetics of the gas - liquid reaction between carbon dioxide and hydroxide ions.Ind Eng Chem Res2002;41:5952-7

[143] Rajappan A,Preston DJ.Pneumatic soft robots take a step toward autonomy.Sci Robot2021;6:eabg6994

[144] Drotman D,Sharp D,Tolley MT.Electronics-free pneumatic circuits for controlling soft-legged robots.Sci Robot2021;6:eaay2627

[145] Mosadegh B,Tung YC.Integrated elastomeric components for autonomous regulation of sequential and oscillatory flow switching in microfluidic devices.Nat Phys2010;6:433-7 PMCID:PMC2880544

[146] Mosadegh B,Keplinger C.Pneumatic networks for soft robotics that actuate rapidly.Adv Funct Mater2014;24:2163-70

[147] Su M,Zhang Y.Pneumatic soft actuator with anisotropic soft and rigid restraints for pure in-plane bending motion.Appl Sci2019;9:2999

[148] Gorissen B,Vasios N,Bertoldi K.Inflatable soft jumper inspired by shell snapping.Sci Robot2020;5:eabb1967

[149] Rothemund P,Belding L.A soft, bistable valve for autonomous control of soft actuators.Sci Robot2018;3:eaar7986

[150] Philamore H,Stinchcombe A.Row-bot: an energetically autonomous artificial water boatman. In: 2015 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS); 2015 Sep 28 - Oct 2; Hamburg, Germany. IEEE; 2015. pp. 3888-93.

[151] Girabawe C.An image-driven drop-on-demand system.Sens Actuators B Chem2017;238:532-9

[152] Sitti M,Hu W.Biomedical applications of untethered mobile milli/microrobots.Proc IEEE Inst Electr Electron Eng2015;103:205-24 PMCID:PMC5063027

[153] Kim S,Trimmer B.Soft robotics: a bioinspired evolution in robotics.Trends Biotechnol2013;31:287-94

[154] Zhang C,Lin Y,Zou J.Modular soft robotics: modular units, connection mechanisms, and applications.Adv Intell Syst2020;2:1900166

[155] Arnaboldi S,Bichon S,Mano N.Bi-enzymatic chemo-mechanical feedback loop for continuous self-sustained actuation of conducting polymers.Nat Commun2023;14:6390 PMCID:PMC10570360

[156] Yang X,Pérez-Arancibia NO.An 88-milligram insect-scale autonomous crawling robot driven by a catalytic artificial muscle.Sci Robot2020;5:eaba0015

[157] Chen S,Sarparast M.Soft crawling robots: design, actuation, and locomotion.Adv Mater Technol2020;5:1900837

[158] Sarikaya S,Auletta JT.Fuel-driven redox reactions in electrolyte-free polymer actuators for soft robotics.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2023;15:31803-11 PMCID:PMC10862377

[159] Mangadlao JD,Baer E.In situ photogeneration of palladium nanoparticles in thermoplastic polyurethane: photopatterning and enhanced oxygen barrier property.Macro Chem Phys2017;218:1700289

[160] Storck S,Maier WF.Characterization of micro- and mesoporous solids by physisorption methods and pore-size analysis.Appl Catal A Gen1998;174:137-46

[161] Furukawa H,O’Keeffe M.The chemistry and applications of metal-organic frameworks.Science2013;341:1230444

[162] Kelly JA,Shopsowitz KE,MacLachlan MJ.The development of chiral nematic mesoporous materials.Acc Chem Res2014;47:1088-96

[163] Wang H,Wu Y.Synthesis and applications of novel graphitic carbon nitride/metal-organic frameworks mesoporous photocatalyst for dyes removal.Appl Catal B Environ2015;174-5:445-54

[164] Narzary BB,Yadav N,Faul CFJ.Crosslinked porous polyimides: structure, properties and applications.Polym Chem2021;12:6494-514

[165] Narzary BB,Faul CFJ.Selective CO₂ electroreduction from tuneable naphthalene-based porous polyimide networks.Adv Mater2023;35:e2211795

[166] Giri N,Melaugh G.Liquids with permanent porosity.Nature2015;527:216-20

[167] Fulvio PF.Porous liquids: the next frontier.Chem2020;6:3263-87

[168] Gronnow MJ,Clark JH.Energy efficiency in chemical reactions:  a comparative study of different reaction techniques.Org Process Res Dev2005;9:516-8

[169] Xavier MS,Zolfagharian A.Soft pneumatic actuators: a review of design, fabrication, modeling, sensing, control and applications.IEEE Access2022;10:59442-85

[170] Dezaki M, Bodaghi M, Serjouei A, Afazov S, Zolfagharian A. Soft pneumatic actuators with controllable stiffness by bio-inspired lattice chambers and fused deposition modeling 3D printing.Adv Eng Mater2023;25:2200797

[171] Yadav T.Insect toxins and their bioprospecting. In: Omkar, editor. Insects as service providers. Singapore: Springer; 2023. pp. 131-62.

[172] Arndt EM,Lee WK.Biomechanics. Mechanistic origins of bombardier beetle (Brachinini) explosion-induced defensive spray pulsation.Science2015;348:563-7

[173] Terryn S,Lefeber D,Vanderborght B.Self-healing soft pneumatic robots.Sci Robot2017;2:eaan4268