Self-powered wearable IoT sensors as human-machine interfaces

Abstract

Self-powered wearable Internet of Things (IoT) sensors have made a significant impact on human life and health in recent years. These sensors are known for their convenience, durability, affordability, and longevity, leading to substantial improvements in people’s lives. This review summarizes the development of self-powered wearable IoT sensors in recent years. Materials for self-powered wearable sensors are summarized and evaluated, including nanomaterials, flexible materials, and degradable materials. The working mode of self-powered wearable IoT sensors is analyzed, and the different principles of its physical sensing and chemical sensing are explained. Several common technologies for self-powered wearable IoT sensors are presented, such as triboelectric technology, piezoelectric technology, and machine learning. The applications of self-powered IoT wearable sensors in human-machine interfaces are reviewed. Its current shortcomings and prospects for its future development are also discussed. To conduct this review, a comprehensive literature search was performed using several electronic databases, resulting in the inclusion of 225 articles. The gathered data was extracted, synthesized, and analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. This review provides a comprehensive analysis and summary of its working mode, technologies, and applications and provides references and inspiration for related research in this field. Furthermore, this review also identifies the key directions and challenges for future research.

Keywords

Self-powered sensor / internet of things / human-machine interfaces

References

[1] Liu F,Qi J.Research and application progress of intelligent wearable devices.Chinese J Anal Chem2021;49:159-71

[2] Rahmani AM,Yu-hsuan K.The internet of things for applications in wearable technology.IEEE Access2022;10:123579-94

[3] Lyu Q,Yin J,Cheng W.Soft wearable healthcare materials and devices.Adv Healthc Mater2021;10:e2100577

[4] Karimi-Maleh H,Karimi F.A critical review on the use of potentiometric based biosensors for biomarkers detection.Biosens Bioelectron2021;184:113252

[5] Lee S,Park MJ.Current advances in wearable devices and their sensors in patients with depression.Front Psychiatry2021;12:672347 PMCID:PMC8245757

[6] Abouzahra M.Effective use of information technologies by seniors: the case of wearable device use.Eur J Inf Syst2022;31:241-55

[7] Jiang D.Research on data security and privacy protection of wearable equipment in healthcare.J Healthc Eng2021;2021:6656204 PMCID:PMC7884134

[8] Yang B,Fang X.Wearable chem-biosensing devices: from basic research to commercial market.Lab Chip2021;21:4285-310

[9] Kim KK,Pyun K.A substrate-less nanomesh receptor with meta-learning for rapid hand task recognition.Nat Electron2023;6:64-75

[10] Nurkahfi GN,Mardiana VA.Development of a low-cost wearable device for Covid-19 self-quarantine monitoring system.Public Health Pract2022;4:100299 PMCID:PMC9387171

[11] Cho S,Weng C,Natarajan K.Factors affecting the quality of person-generated wearable device data and associated challenges: rapid systematic review.JMIR Mhealth Uhealth2021;9:e20738 PMCID:PMC8294465

[12] Webster CS,Wan YI.Patient monitoring, wearable devices, and the healthcare information ecosystem.Br J Anaesth2022;128:756-8

[13] Meng L,Song Y,Lin Z.Long-term wearable electrocardiogram signal monitoring and analysis based on convolutional neural network.IEEE Trans Instrum Meas2021;70:1-11

[14] Randazzo V,Pasero E.Anytime ECG monitoring through the use of a low-cost, user-friendly, wearable device.Sensors2021;21:6036 PMCID:PMC8473282

[15] Chen C,He W,Hao Q.3D printed high-loading lithium-sulfur battery toward wearable energy storage.Adv Funct Mater2020;30:1909469

[16] Shu L,Chen W.Wearable emotion recognition using heart rate data from a smart bracelet.Sensors2020;20:718 PMCID:PMC7038485

[17] Zhang S,Ma S.Current advances and challenges in nanosheet-based wearable power supply devices.iScience2021;24:103477 PMCID:PMC8646179

[18] Xu C,Han M.Portable and wearable self-powered systems based on emerging energy harvesting technology.Microsyst Nanoeng2021;7:25 PMCID:PMC8433392

[19] Reid RC.Wearable self-powered biosensors.Curr Opin Electrochem2020;19:55-62

[20] Lou Z,Wang L.Recent progress of self-powered sensing systems for wearable electronics.Small2017;13:1701791

[21] Dai J,Shi B.Recent progress of self-powered respiration monitoring systems.Biosens Bioelectron2021;194:113609

[22] Parvin D,Oh T.RF energy harvester integrated self-powered wearable respiratory monitoring system. In. IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC); 2021.

[23] Zhao Z,Mi Y,Cao X.Structural flexibility in triboelectric nanogenerators: a review on the adaptive design for self-powered systems.Micromachines2022;13:1586 PMCID:PMC9610431

[24] Zheng Y,Hu Z,Wang J.Bioinspired triboelectric nanosensors for self-powered wearable applications.ACS Biomater Sci Eng2023;9:2087-102

[25] Rubab N.Triboelectric nanogenerators for self-powered sensors.J Sens Sci2022;31:79-84

[26] Wang Y,Shi Y.Self-powered wearable ultraviolet index detector using a flexible thermoelectric generator.J Micromech Microeng2019;29:045002

[27] Guo R,Cao S,Yan Z.A self-powered stretchable sensor fabricated by serpentine PVDF film for multiple dynamic monitoring.2019;182:108025

[28] Wang R,Bao Y.Holistically engineered polymer-polymer and polymer-ion interactions in biocompatible polyvinyl alcohol blends for high-performance triboelectric devices in self-powered wearable cardiovascular monitorings.Adv Mater2020;32:e2002878

[29] Zhang D,Xu Z.Diversiform sensors and sensing systems driven by triboelectric and piezoelectric nanogenerators.Coord Chem Rev2021;427:213597

[30] Huo Z,Wang Y,Sun Q.Integrated self-powered sensors based on 2D material devices.Adv Funct Materials2022;32:2206900

[31] Lu Y,Jiang K,Shen G.Recent progress of self-powered wearable monitoring systems integrated with microsupercapacitors.Mater Today Nano2019;8:100050

[32] Yang Z,Chen Z.Recent advances in self-powered piezoelectric and triboelectric sensors: from material and structure design to frontier applications of artificial intelligence.Sensors2021;21:8422 PMCID:PMC8703550

[33] Wen N,Fan Z.A highly stretchable and breathable self-powered dual-parameter sensor for decoupled temperature and strain sensing.Org Electron2023;113:106723

[34] Guan H,He H.A self-powered wearable sweat-evaporation-biosensing analyzer for building sports big data.Nano Energy2019;59:754-61

[35] Yang L,Tian Y,Peng Z.Progress on self-powered wearable and implantable systems driven by nanogenerators.Micromachines2021;12:666 PMCID:PMC8227325

[36] Wang D,Li P,Mi Q.Electrospinning of flexible poly(vinyl alcohol)/MXene nanofiber-based humidity sensor self-powered by monolayer molybdenum diselenide piezoelectric nanogenerator.Nanomicro Lett2021;13:57 PMCID:PMC8187675

[37] Chen J,Tu Y.Wearable self-powered human motion sensors based on highly stretchable quasi-solid state hydrogel.Nano Energy2021;88:106272

[38] Yi J,Shen S.Fully fabric-based triboelectric nanogenerators as self-powered human-machine interactive keyboards.Nanomicro Lett2021;13:103 PMCID:PMC8021621

[39] Gai Y,Liu M.A self-powered wearable sensor for continuous wireless sweat monitoring.Small Methods2022;6:e2200653

[40] Matiko JW,Torah R.Wearable EEG headband using printed electrodes and powered by energy harvesting for emotion monitoring in ambient assisted living.Smart Mater Struct2015;24:125028

[41] Wang S,Tai H.An integrated flexible self-powered wearable respiration sensor.Nano Energy2019;63:103829

[42] Kim CS,Lee J.Self-powered wearable electrocardiography using a wearable thermoelectric power generator.ACS Energy Lett2018;3:501-7

[43] Du M,Qu X.Hybrid nanogenerator for biomechanical energy harvesting, motion state detection, and pulse sensing.Adv Mater Technol2022;7:2101332

[44] Meng X,Jiang X.Triboelectric nanogenerator as a highly sensitive self-powered sensor for driver behavior monitoring.Nano Energy2018;51:721-7

[45] Hartel MC,Weiss PS,Kim J.Resettable sweat-powered wearable electrochromic biosensor.Biosens Bioelectron2022;215:114565

[46] Tan P,Chao S.An artificial intelligence-enhanced blood pressure monitor wristband based on piezoelectric nanogenerator.Biosensors2022;12:234 PMCID:PMC9031237

[47] Hu B,Jiang D.Wearable exoskeleton system for energy harvesting and angle sensing based on a piezoelectric cantilever generator array.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:36622-32

[48] Shao Y,Zhou Y,Li L.Nanogenerator-based self-powered sensors for data collection.Beilstein J Nanotechnol2021;12:680-93 PMCID:PMC8275872

[49] Wu Z,Wang ZL.Self-powered sensors and systems based on nanogenerators.Sensors2020;20:2925 PMCID:PMC7288337

[50] Huang P,Qiu Y.Textile-based triboelectric nanogenerators for wearable self-powered microsystems.Micromachines2021;12:158 PMCID:PMC7915559

[51] Xu K,Takei K.Multifunctional skin-inspired flexible sensor systems for wearable electronics.Adv Mater Technol2019;4:1800628

[52] Qin XM.Application of the internet of things. In: 4th International Conference on Machine Vision (ICMV) - Computer Vision and Image Analysis - Pattern Recognition and Basic Technologies. Singapore, SINGAPORE; 2011.

[53] Choi W,Lee S.Smart home and internet of things: a bibliometric study.J Clean Prod2021;301:126908

[54] Yang Y,Zhu M.Triboelectric nanogenerator enabled wearable sensors and electronics for sustainable internet of things integrated green earth.Adv Energy Mater2023;13:2203040

[55] Wen N,Yang S.Highly stretchable, breathable, and self-powered strain-temperature dual-functional sensors with laminated structure for health monitoring, hyperthermia, and physiotherapy applications.Adv Elect Materials2022;8:2200680

[56] Lu Z,Jia C.A self-powered portable flexible sensor of monitoring speed skating techniques.Biosensors2021;11:108 PMCID:PMC8067624

[57] Shi Q,He T.Progress in wearable electronics/photonic - moving toward the era of artificial intelligence and internet of things.InfoMat2020;2:1131-62

[58] Hayashi H.Human-machine interfaces based on bioelectric signals: a narrative review with a novel system proposal.IEEJ Transactions Elec Engng2022;17:1536-44

[59] Izadgoshasb I.Piezoelectric energy harvesting towards self-powered internet of things (IoT) sensors in smart cities.Sensors2021;21:8332 PMCID:PMC8703737

[60] Su Y,Chen C.Self-powered respiration monitoring enabled by a triboelectric nanogenerator.Adv Mater2021;33:e2170277

[61] Gao M,Jiang L.Power generation for wearable systems.Energy Environ Sci2021;14:2114-57

[62] Rahimi Sardo F,Matin Nazar A.Recent progress of triboelectric nanogenerators for biomedical sensors: from design to application.Biosensors2022;12:697 PMCID:PMC9496147

[63] Falagas ME,Malietzis GA.Comparison of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar: strengths and weaknesses.FASEB J2008;22:338-42

[64] Mongeon P.The journal coverage of Web of Science and Scopus: a comparative analysis.Scientometrics2016;106:213-28

[65] Zhu J.A tale of two databases: the use of Web of Science and Scopus in academic papers.Scientometrics2020;123:321-35

[66] Singh VK,Karmakar M,Mayr P.The journal coverage of Web of Science, Scopus and Dimensions: a comparative analysis.Scientometrics2021;126:5113-42

[67] Martín-Martín A,Orduna-Malea E.Google Scholar, Microsoft Academic, Scopus, Dimensions, Web of Science, and OpenCitations’ COCI: a multidisciplinary comparison of coverage via citations.Scientometrics2021;126:871-906 PMCID:PMC7505221

[68] Wang Q.Large-scale analysis of the accuracy of the journal classification systems of Web of Science and Scopus.J Informetr2016;10:347-64

[69] AlRyalat SAS,Momani SM.Comparing bibliometric analysis using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. J Vis Exp 2019.

[70] Franceschini F,Mastrogiacomo L.Empirical analysis and classification of database errors in Scopus and Web of Science.J Informetr2016;10:933-53

[71] Xie L,Wang H,Jiang J.Bibliometric and visualized analysis of scientific publications on atlantoaxial spine surgery based on Web of Science and VOSviewer.World Neurosurg2020;137:435-442.e4

[72] Antwi-afari MF,Wong JK.Sensing and warning-based technology applications to improve occupational health and safety in the construction industry: a literature review.Eng Constr Archit Manag2019;26:1534-52

[73] Asadzadeh A,Li H,Bab-hadiashar A.Sensor-based safety management.Automat Constr2020;113:103128

[74] Zhang W,Yang G.Wearable and self-powered sensors made by triboelectric nanogenerators assembled from antibacterial bromobutyl rubber.Nano Energy2021;82:105769

[75] Kamilya T.Highly sensitive self-powered biomedical applications using triboelectric nanogenerator.Micromachines2022;13:2065 PMCID:PMC9781368

[76] Yi Q,Das P,Lee SW.A self-powered triboelectric MXene-based 3D-printed wearable physiological biosignal sensing system for on-demand, wireless, and real-time health monitoring.Nano Energy2022;101:107511

[77] Liang H,Chen M.Self-powered stretchable mechanoluminescent optical fiber strain sensor.Adv Intell Syst2021;3:2100035

[78] Parrilla M.Wearable self-powered electrochemical devices for continuous health management.Adv Funct Mater2021;31:2107042

[79] Shi Y,Ding S.A self-powered piezoelectret sensor based on foamed plastic garbage for monitoring human motions.Nano Res2023;16:1269-76

[80] Kong H,Li M.Enhanced electricity generation from graphene microfluidic channels for self-powered flexible sensors.Nano Lett2022;22:3266-74

[81] Bae CW,Lee EH.Stretchable non-enzymatic fuel cell-based sensor patch integrated with thread-embedded microfluidics for self-powered wearable glucose monitoring.Adv Materials Inter2022;9:2200492

[82] Huang J,Zhao M,Huang F.All-fiber-structured triboelectric nanogenerator via one-pot electrospinning for self-powered wearable sensors.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:24774-84

[83] Zhang W,Chao S.Ultrathin stretchable triboelectric nanogenerators improved by postcharging electrode material.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:42966-76

[84] Lin Y,Liang S,Xing L.A wearable exhaling-oxygen-sensing mask based on piezoelectric/gas-sensing coupling effect for real-time monitoring and uploading lung disease information.J Phys D: Appl Phys2022;55:224001

[85] Tan P,Fan Y.Research progress of self-powered flexible biomedical sensors.Acta Phys Sin2020;69:178704

[86] Lv F,Shen L.Wearable helical molybdenum nitride supercapacitors for self-powered healthcare smartsensors.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:29780-7

[87] Zheng C,Jin W.A flexible self-powered sensing element with integrated organic thermoelectric generator.Adv Mater Technol2019;4:1900247

[88] Wang Y,Deng Y.Self-powered wearable pressure sensing system for continuous healthcare monitoring enabled by flexible thin-film thermoelectric generator.Nano Energy2020;73:104773

[89] Mo X,Li W.Piezoelectrets for wearable energy harvesters and sensors.Nano Energy2019;65:104033

[90] Yuan J,Li G.Self-powered electronic skin with multisensory functions based on thermoelectric conversion.Adv Mater Technol2020;5:2000419

[91] Xiao Y,Zou G.Self-powered, flexible and remote-controlled breath monitor based on TiO₂ nanowire networks.Nanotechnology2019;30:325503

[92] Hou X,Yu J.Flexible piezoelectric nanofibers/polydimethylsiloxane-based pressure sensor for self-powered human motion monitoring.Energy Technol2020;8:1901242

[93] Sun T,Jiang Y.Wearable textile supercapacitors for self-powered enzyme-free smartsensors.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:21779-87

[94] Ma H,Cheng P.Wearable motion smartsensors self-powered by core-shell Au@Pt methanol fuel cells.ACS Sens2021;6:4526-34

[95] Wang D,Tang M.Rotating triboelectric-electromagnetic nanogenerator driven by tires for self-powered MXene-based flexible wearable electronics.Chem Eng J2022;446:136914

[96] Wang D,Yang Y,Zhang J.Multifunctional latex/polytetrafluoroethylene-based triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered organ-like MXene/metal-organic framework-derived CuO nanohybrid ammonia sensor.ACS Nano2021;15:2911-9

[97] Zheng S,Das P.Multitasking MXene inks enable high-performance printable microelectrochemical energy storage devices for all-flexible self-powered integrated systems.Adv Mater2021;33:e2005449

[98] Bhanu N,Batabyal SK.Self-powered low-range pressure sensor using biopolymer composites.Appl Phys A2022;128

[99] Gong H,Yang Y.Transparent, stretchable and degradable protein electronic skin for biomechanical energy scavenging and wireless sensing.Biosens Bioelectron2020;169:112567

[100] Bi S,Chen Q.Ultralarge curvature and extreme rapid degradable porous wood based flexible triboelectric sensor for physical motion monitoring.Adv Mater Technol2023;8:2201066

[101] Lan X,Ye C.Scalable and degradable dextrin-based elastomers for wearable touch sensing.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2023;15:4398-407 PMCID:PMC9880951

[102] Morsada Z,Islam MT,Saha S.Recent progress in biodegradable and bioresorbable materials: from passive implants to active electronics.Appl Mater Today2021;25:101257

[103] Chen K,Du Z.CoFe₂O₄ embedded bacterial cellulose for flexible, biodegradable, and self-powered electromagnetic sensor.Nano Energy2022;102:107740

[104] Zhu J,Zhang H,Liu L.Recent advances in biodegradable electronics- from fundament to the next-generation multi-functional, medical and environmental device.Sustain Mater Technol2023;35:e00530

[105] Wu M,Gao S.Solution-synthesized chiral piezoelectric selenium nanowires for wearable self-powered human-integrated monitoring.Nano Energy2019;56:693-9

[106] Wang Y,Wan S.Scalable nanomanufacturing and assembly of chiral-chain piezoelectric tellurium nanowires for wearable self-powered cardiovascular monitoring.Nano Futures2019;3:011001

[107] Lee E.Self-powered sensors: new opportunities and challenges from two-dimensional nanomaterials.Molecules2021;26:5056 PMCID:PMC8398567

[108] Jeerapan I,Pavinatto A,Wang J.Stretchable biofuel cells as wearable textile-based self-powered sensors.J Mater Chem A Mater2016;4:18342-53 PMCID:PMC5400293

[109] Hallfors NG,Abi Jaoude M.Graphene oxide: nylon ECG sensors for wearable IoT healthcare - nanomaterial and SoC interface.Analog Integr Circ Sig Process2018;96:253-60

[110] Roy PK,Mazánek V.Self-powered broadband photodetector and sensor based on novel few-layered Pd₃(PS₄)₂ nanosheets.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:30806-17

[111] Singh A,Yadav B.Gigantic enhancement in response of heterostructured CeO₂/CdS nanospheres based self-powered CO₂ gas sensor: a comparative study.Sens Actuators B Chem2023;377:133085

[112] Pan CT,Kumar A.PVDF/AgNP/MXene composites-based near-field electrospun fiber with enhanced piezoelectric performance for self-powered wearable sensors.Int J Bioprint2023;9:647 PMCID:PMC9947487

[113] Yoon Y,Lee D.Metal-oxide nanomaterials synthesis and applications in flexible and wearable sensors.ACS Nanoscience Au2021;2:64-92 PMCID:PMC10114907

[114] Wang S,Weng B.Stretchable and wearable triboelectric nanogenerator based on kinesio tape for self-powered human motion sensing.Nanomaterials2018;8:657 PMCID:PMC6165338

[115] Wang J,Zhang J.A stretchable self-powered triboelectric tactile sensor with EGaIn alloy electrode for ultra-low-pressure detection.Nano Energy2021;89:106320

[116] He X,Guo H.A highly stretchable fiber-based triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered wearable electronics.Adv Funct Mater2017;27:1604378

[117] Cao Y,Qu X.A self-powered triboelectric hybrid coder for human-machine interaction.Small Methods2022;6:e2101529

[118] Chen H,Cheng X.Self-powered electronic skin based on the triboelectric generator.Nano Energy2019;56:252-68

[119] Sahu M,Panda S.Waste textiles as the versatile triboelectric energy-harvesting platform for self-powered applications in sports and athletics.Nano Energy2022;97:107208

[120] Ning C,Gao W.Dual-mode thermal-regulating and self-powered pressure sensing hybrid smart fibers.Chem Eng J2021;420:129650

[121] Zhu G,Yang J.Self-powered and multi-mode flexible sensing film with patterned conductive network for wireless monitoring in healthcare.Nano Energy2022;98:107327

[122] Li Z,Zhang Y,Zhu W.P(VDF-TrFE)-based self-sustained monitoring system.IEEE Trans Dielect Electr Insul2022;29:1771-6

[123] Hossain G,Hossain IZ.Wearable socks with single electrode triboelectric textile sensors for monitoring footsteps.Sens Actuator A Phys2022;333:113316

[124] A S,Lu C.self-powered flexible sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerators for noncontact motion sensing.IEEE Sensors J2022;22:12547-59

[125] Yao K,Li D.Mechanics designs-performance relationships in epidermal triboelectric nanogenerators.Nano Energy2020;76:105017

[126] Zhu J,Peng X,Zhang X.Visible light mediated self-powered sensing based on target induced recombination of photogenerated carriers.J Hazard Mater2021;407:124765

[127] Wang L,Li Y.Multifunctional integrated interdigital microsupercapacitors and self-powered iontronic tactile pressure sensor for wearable electronics.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:47136-47

[128] Ma J,Du Y.Wearable fiber-based supercapacitors enabled by additive-free aqueous MXene inks for self-powering healthcare sensors.Adv Fiber Mater2022;4:1535-44

[129] Zhou B,Hu K.Matrix-addressed crosstalk-free self-powered pressure sensor array based on electrospun isolated PVDF-TrFE cells.Sens Actuators A Phys2022;347:113993

[130] Lei H,Chen Y.Bamboo-inspired self-powered triboelectric sensor for touch sensing and sitting posture monitoring.Nano Energy2022;91:106670

[131] Yu J,Hou X.Stretchable and skin-conformal piezo-triboelectric pressure sensor for human joint bending motion monitoring.J Materiomics2022;8:247-56

[132] Gong W,Guo Y.A wearable, fibroid, self-powered active kinematic sensor based on stretchable sheath-core structural triboelectric fibers.Nano Energy2017;39:673-83

[133] He X,He M,Wang L.Stretchable thermoelectric-based self-powered dual-parameter sensors with decoupled temperature and strain sensing.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:60498-507

[134] Lee S.Fingerprint-inspired triboelectric nanogenerator with a geometrically asymmetric electrode design for a self-powered dynamic pressure sensor.Nano Energy2022;101:107546

[135] Li G,Zhang P,Xu F.Ultra-stretchable and healable hydrogel-based triboelectric nanogenerators for energy harvesting and self-powered sensing.RSC Adv2021;11:17437-44 PMCID:PMC9032853

[136] Bai C,Yang S.Wearable electronics based on the gel thermogalvanic electrolyte for self-powered human health monitoring.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:37316-22

[137] Huang J,Liu J.Environment stable ionic organohydrogel as a self-powered integrated system for wearable electronics.J Mater Chem A2021;9:16345-58

[138] He X,Zhang H.Facile fabrication of stretchable and multifunctional thermoelectric composite fabrics with strain-enhanced self-powered sensing performance.Compos Commun2022;35:101275

[139] Zhang X,Zou R.Compressible and stretchable magnetoelectric sensors based on liquid metals for highly sensitive, self-powered respiratory monitoring.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:15727-37

[140] Zeng X,Wen DL,Xu L.Wearable multi-functional sensing technology for healthcare smart detection.Micromachines2022;13:254 PMCID:PMC8874439

[141] Shin YE,Ghosh SK,Park J.Ultrasensitive multimodal tactile sensors with skin-inspired microstructures through localized ferroelectric polarization.Adv Sci2022;9:e2105423 PMCID:PMC8948547

[142] Jinno H,Koizumi M.Self-powered ultraflexible photonic skin for continuous bio-signal detection via air-operation-stable polymer light-emitting diodes.Nat Commun2021;12:2234 PMCID:PMC8047008

[143] Kim Y,Hong H,Ryu W.Self-powered wearable micropyramid piezoelectric film sensor for real-time monitoring of blood pressure.Adv Eng Mater2023;25:2200873

[144] Wang B,Xiao Y.Ultrasensitive cellular fluorocarbon piezoelectret pressure sensor for self-powered human physiological monitoring.Nano Energy2017;32:42-9

[145] Xu L,Gao F.Self-powered ultrasensitive pulse sensors for noninvasive multi-indicators cardiovascular monitoring.Nano Energy2021;81:105614

[146] Laurila M,Montero KL.Self-powered, high sensitivity printed e-tattoo sensor for unobtrusive arterial pulse wave monitoring.Nano Energy2022;102:107625

[147] Sahoo S, Walke P, Nayak SK, Rout CS, Late DJ. Recent developments in self-powered smart chemical sensors for wearable electronics.Nano Res2021;14:3669-89

[148] Li L,Hao M.Moisture-driven power generation for multifunctional flexible sensing systems.Nano Lett2019;19:5544-52

[149] Su Y,Wang B.Alveolus-inspired active membrane sensors for self-powered wearable chemical sensing and breath analysis.ACS Nano2020;14:6067-75

[150] Liu Q,Song WZ.Wireless single-electrode self-powered piezoelectric sensor for monitoring.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:8288-95

[151] Xue Z,Yuan J,Wu Y.Self-powered biosensors for monitoring human physiological changes.Biosensors2023;13:236 PMCID:PMC9953832

[152] Wang J,Wang Y,Liu S.Self-healing and highly stretchable gelatin hydrogel for self-powered strain sensor.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:1558-66

[153] Li M,Zhong W.Large-area, wearable, self-powered pressure-temperature sensor based on 3D thermoelectric spacer fabric.ACS Sens2020;5:2545-54

[154] Xu S,Yang S.Highly flexible, stretchable, and self-powered strain-temperature dual sensor based on free-standing PEDOT:PSS/carbon nanocoils-poly(vinyl) alcohol films.ACS Sens2021;6:1120-8

[155] Kanokpaka P,Wang B.Self-powered molecular imprinted polymers-based triboelectric sensor for noninvasive monitoring lactate levels in human sweat.Nano Energy2022;100:107464

[156] Shajari S,Zare A.MicroSweat: a wearable microfluidic patch for noninvasive and reliable sweat collection enables human stress monitoring.Adv Sci2023;10:e2204171

[157] Gonzalez-Solino C.Enzymatic fuel cells: towards self-powered implantable and wearable diagnostics.Biosensors2018;8:11 PMCID:PMC5872059

[158] Zhao J,Wu J.A fully integrated and self-powered smartwatch for continuous sweat glucose monitoring.ACS Sens2019;4:1925-33

[159] Zhang X,Zhai Q.Point-of-care diagnoses: flexible patterning technique for self-powered wearable sensors.Anal Chem2018;90:11780-4

[160] Ghoreishizadeh SS,McBay D.Towards self-powered and autonomous wearable glucose sensor. In: 25th IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits and Systems (ICECS). Bordeaux, France; 2018. p. 701-4.

[161] Kil HJ,Park JW.A Self-charging supercapacitor for a patch-type glucose sensor.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:3838-48

[162] Huang X,Liu Y.Epidermal self-powered sweat sensors for glucose and lactate monitoring.Bio-des Manuf2022;5:201-9

[163] Santiago-Malagón S,Azizkhani H,Guirado G.A self-powered skin-patch electrochromic biosensor.Biosens Bioelectron2021;175:112879

[164] Pu X,Wang ZL.Triboelectric nanogenerators as wearable power sources and self-powered sensors.Natl Sci Rev2023;10:nwac170 PMCID:PMC9843157

[165] Chen C,Wu Z.3D double-faced interlock fabric triboelectric nanogenerator for bio-motion energy harvesting and as self-powered stretching and 3D tactile sensors.Materials Today2020;32:84-93

[166] Liu C,Zhang N.A self-powered and high sensitivity acceleration sensor with V-Q-a model based on triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs).Nano Energy2020;67:104228

[167] Jiang M,Zhu Z.Advances in smart sensing and medical electronics by self-powered sensors based on triboelectric nanogenerators.Micromachines2021;12:698 PMCID:PMC8232818

[168] Zheng N,Jie Y,Wang ZL.Wearable and humidity-resistant biomaterials-based triboelectric nanogenerator for high entropy energy harvesting and self-powered sensing.Nano Res2022;15:6213-9

[169] Chandrasekhar A,Sudhakaran MSP,Kim SJ.A smart mobile pouch as a biomechanical energy harvester towards self-powered smart wireless power transfer applications.Nanoscale2017;9:9818-24

[170] Zu L,Shao J.A self-powered early warning glove with integrated elastic-arched triboelectric nanogenerator and flexible printed circuit for real-time safety protection.Adv Mater Technol2022;7:2100787

[171] Cao W,Xin W.A stretchable highoutput triboelectric nanogenerator improved by MXene liquid electrode with high electronegativity.Adv Funct Mater2020;30:2004181

[172] Lee T,Kim D.Flexible hybrid nanogenerator for self-powered weather and healthcare monitoring sensor.Adv Electron Mater2021;7:2100785

[173] Li Z,Han J,Fu H.A polycation-modified nanofillers tailored polymer electrolytes fiber for versatile biomechanical energy harvesting and full-range personal healthcare sensing.Adv Funct Materials2022;32:2106731

[174] Li L,Hsiao Y.Mycena chlorophos-inspired autoluminescent triboelectric fiber for wearable energy harvesting, self-powered sensing, and as human–device interfaces.Nano Energy2022;94:106944

[175] He H,Wang Y.An ultralight self-powered fire alarm e-textile based on conductive aerogel fiber with repeatable temperature monitoring performance used in firefighting clothing.ACS Nano2022;16:2953-67

[176] Zhao J,Song X,Ma Y.Flexible triboelectric nanogenerator based on polyester conductive cloth for biomechanical energy harvesting and self-powered sensors.Nanoscale2021;13:18363-73

[177] Zhu Y,Wu M,Jia C.Wearable, freezing-tolerant, and self-powered electroluminescence system for long-term cold-resistant displays.Nano Energy2022;98:107309

[178] Zhang P,Zhang H,Fan X.Enhanced performance of triboelectric nanogenerator with micro-rhombic patterned PDMS for self-powered wearable sensing.Adv Materials Inter2022;9:2201265

[179] Zhou L,Ren L.Reconfigurable fiber triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered defect detection.ACS Nano2022;16:7721-31

[180] Li W,Kong H.An integrated wearable self-powered platform for real-time and continuous temperature monitoring.Nano Energy2022;104:107935

[181] Jiang D,Shi B.A wearable noncontact free-rotating hybrid nanogenerator for self-powered electronics.InfoMat2020;2:1191-200

[182] Rahman MT,Salauddin M.Silicone-incorporated nanoporous cobalt oxide and MXene nanocomposite-coated stretchable fabric for wearable triboelectric nanogenerator and self-powered sensing applications.Nano Energy2022;100:107454

[183] Rayegani A,Delshad Z.Recent advances in self-powered wearable sensors based on piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators.Biosensors2022;13:37 PMCID:PMC9855384

[184] Zhu M,Yang B.Making use of nanoenergy from human - nanogenerator and self-powered sensor enabled sustainable wireless IoT sensory systems.Nano Today2021;36:101016

[185] Huang X,Wang X.Piezoelectric nanogenerator for highly sensitive and synchronous multi-stimuli sensing.ACS Nano2021;15:19783-92

[186] Chen X,Su Z.Flexible fiber-based hybrid nanogenerator for biomechanical energy harvesting and physiological monitoring.Nano Energy2017;38:43-50

[187] Guan X,Gong J.Hierarchically architected polydopamine modified BaTiO₃@P(VDF-TrFE) nanocomposite fiber mats for flexible piezoelectric nanogenerators and self-powered sensors.Nano Energy2020;70:104516

[188] Zhou X,Halevi O.All 3D-printed stretchable piezoelectric nanogenerator with non-protruding kirigami structure.Nano Energy2020;72:104676

[189] Zhang D,Li X.Enhanced piezoelectric performance of PVDF/BiCl₃/ZnO nanofiber-based piezoelectric nanogenerator.Eur Polym J2022;166:110956

[190] Liu L,Lee C.Promoting smart cities into the 5G era with multi-field internet of things (IoT) applications powered with advanced mechanical energy harvesters.Nano Energy2021;88:106304

[191] Athira BS,Vaishna Priya K.High-performance flexible piezoelectric nanogenerator based on electrospun PVDF-BaTiO₃ nanofibers for self-powered vibration sensing applications.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:44239-50

[192] Su C,Zhang L.Robust superhydrophobic wearable piezoelectric nanogenerators for self-powered body motion sensors.Nano Energy2023;107:108095

[193] Lo WC,Fuh YK.3D stacked near-field electrospun nanoporous PVDF-TrFE nanofibers as self-powered smart sensing in gait big data analytics.Adv Mater Technol2021;6:2000779

[194] Zeng S,Jiang L.Wearable piezoelectric nanogenerators based on core-shell Ga-PZT@GaO_x nanorod-enabled P(VDF-TrFE) composites.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2022;14:7990-8000

[195] Kumar M.P(VDF-TrFE)/ZnO nanocomposite synthesized by electrospinning: effect of ZnO nanofiller on physical, mechanical, thermal, rheological and piezoelectric properties.Polym Bull2023;80:4859-78

[196] Deng L,Yang T.Flexible lead-free piezoelectric Ba_0.94Sr_0.06Sn_0.09Ti_0.91O₃/PDMS composite for self-powered human motion monitoring.J Funct Biomater2023;14:37 PMCID:PMC9860964

[197] Wang N,Connelly L.All-organic flexible ferroelectret nanogenerator with fabric-based electrodes for self-powered body area networks.Small2021;17:e2103161

[198] Zhang D,Wang D.MXene/Co₃O₄ composite based formaldehyde sensor driven by ZnO/MXene nanowire arrays piezoelectric nanogenerator.Sens Actuators B Chem2021;339:129923

[199] Wu HS,Chen SW.Metal-free perovskite piezoelectric nanogenerators for human-machine interfaces and self-powered electrical stimulation applications.Adv Sci2022;9:e2105974 PMCID:PMC9218782

[200] Tan P,Fan Y.Self-powered wearable electronics.Wearable Technologies2020;1:e5

[201] Choi J,Kim B.Wearable self-powered pressure sensor by integration of piezo-transmittance microporous elastomer with organic solar cell.Nano Energy2020;74:104749

[202] Tan P,Zou Y.Self-powered gesture recognition wristband enabled by machine learning for full keyboard and multicommand input.Adv Mater2022;34:e2200793

[203] Zhang W,Sun K,Diao D.Intelligently detecting and identifying liquids leakage combining triboelectric nanogenerator based self-powered sensor with machine learning.Nano Energy2019;56:277-85

[204] Zhang K,Zhang J.Biodegradable smart face masks for machine learning-assisted chronic respiratory disease diagnosis.ACS Sens2022;7:3135-43

[205] Wang B,Hunter LA.A multifunctional nanocellulose-based hydrogel for strain sensing and self-powering applications.Carbohydr Polym2021;268:118210

[206] Shi Y,Wang K.Integrated all-fiber electronic skin toward self-powered sensing sports systems.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:50329-37

[207] Zhang M,Xia G,Wang K.Self-powered electronic skin for remote human-machine synchronization.ACS Appl Electron Mater2023;5:498-508

[208] Lin Y,Zhu D,Wang B.Self-powered and interface-independent tactile sensors based on bilayer single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerators for robotic electronic skin.Adv Intell Syst2023;5:2100120

[209] Zhao Y,Dai K.Bioinspired multifunctional photonic-electronic smart skin for ultrasensitive health monitoring, for visual and self-powered sensing.Adv Mater2021;33:e2102332

[210] Chun KY,Han CS.Self-powered, stretchable, and wearable ion gel mechanoreceptor sensors.ACS Sens2021;6:1940-8

[211] Chen Y,Gao Z.Energy autonomous electronic skin with direct temperature-pressure perception.Nano Energy2022;98:107273

[212] Wu M,Li D.Self-powered skin electronics for energy harvesting and healthcare monitoring.Mater Today Energy2021;21:100786

[213] Guo Y,Yang W.Multifunctional mechanical sensing electronic device based on triboelectric anisotropic crumpled nanofibrous mats.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:55481-8

[214] Liu Q,Zhang P.Nanofibrous grids assembled orthogonally from direct-written piezoelectric fibers as self-powered tactile sensors.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021;13:10623-31

[215] Zhu J,Luo Y.Triboelectric patch based on maxwell displacement current for human energy harvesting and eye movement monitoring.ACS Nano2022;16:11884-91

[216] Chen C,Ding W.Woven fabric triboelectric nanogenerator for biomotion energy harvesting and as self-powered gait-recognizing socks.Energies2020;13:4119

[217] Rana SMS,Zahed MA.Zirconium metal-organic framework and hybridized Co-NPC@MXene nanocomposite-coated fabric for stretchable, humidity-resistant triboelectric nanogenerators and self-powered tactile sensors.Nano Energy2022;104:107931

[218] Zhou M,Ma L.Continuously fabricated nano/micro aligned fiber based waterproof and breathable fabric triboelectric nanogenerators for self-powered sensing systems.Nano Energy2022;104:107885

[219] Du X,Sun G.Self-powered and self-sensing energy textile system for flexible wearable applications.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:55876-83

[220] Liu L,Zhao L.Nanowrinkle-patterned flexible woven triboelectric nanogenerator toward self-powered wearable electronics.Nano Energy2020;73:104797

[221] Zhang H,Shang S.A high-performance, biocompatible, and degradable piezoresistive-triboelectric hybrid device for cross-scale human activities monitoring and self-powered smart home system.Nano Energy2022;102:107687

[222] Wang M,Tang Y.Air-flow-driven triboelectric nanogenerators for self-powered real-time respiratory monitoring.ACS Nano2018;12:6156-62 PMCID:PMC6279609

[223] Qin Y,Liu Y.Stretchable triboelectric self-powered sweat sensor fabricated from self-healing nanocellulose hydrogels.Adv Funct Materials2022;32:2201846

[224] Mondal R,Zhang R,Yang Y.Nanogenerators-based self-powered sensors.Adv Mater Technol2022;7:2200282

[225] Jiang Y,Ning C.Ultrathin eardrum-inspired self-powered acoustic sensor for vocal synchronization recognition with the assistance of machine learning.Small2022;18:e2106960