Recent progress in thermal management for flexible/wearable devices

Abstract

Thermal management for wearable devices is evolving to make ubiquitous applications possible based on advanced devices featuring miniaturization, integration, and ultrathin designs. Thermal management and control integrated with wearable devices are highly desirable for various applications for human body monitoring, including external heat exposure and metabolic heat generation, in various activities. Recently, dynamic change materials have been integrated with micro/nano thermal management platforms to address the potential for active thermal management. In this article, recent advances in the architecture of effective thermal management in wearable devices are reviewed, along with the essential mechanisms for managing thermal conditions for users in external/internal thermal environments. Appropriate thermal management approaches are proposed for the design and integration of materials/structures tailored to specific targets in wearable devices. In particular, this review is devoted to materials/structures based on five thermal management strategies: conduction, radiation, evaporation/convection, heat absorption/release, and thermoelectric (TE). Finally, the challenges and prospects for practical applications of thermal management in wearable devices are discussed.

Keywords

Thermal management / wearable devices / thermal conductors / radiative coolers / evaporative textiles / thermoelectric devices

References

[1] Iqbal SMA,Du E,Asghar W.Advances in healthcare wearable devices.NPJ Flex Electron2021;5

[2] Cheng Y,Xu H,Jin Q.Recent developments in sensors for wearable device applications.Anal Bioanal Chem2021;413:6037-57

[3] Wu M. Wearable technology applications in healthcare: a literature review. Available from: https://www.himss.org/resources/wearable-technology-applications-healthcare-literature-review [Last accessed on 13 Apr 2023]

[4] Yapici MK.Intelligent medical garments with graphene-functionalized smart-cloth ECG sensors.Sensors2017;17:875 PMCID:PMC5424752

[5] Arquilla K,Anderson AP.Textile electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes for wearable health monitoring.Sensors2020;20:1013

[6] Beniczky S,Henning O,Wolf P.Automated real-time detection of tonic-clonic seizures using a wearable EMG device.Neurology2018;90:e428-34 PMCID:PMC5791791

[7] Zhou Z,Li X.Sign-to-speech translation using machine-learning-assisted stretchable sensor arrays.Nat Electron2020;3:571-8

[8] Cai J,Aoyagi E,Watanabe A.Laser direct writing of a high-performance all-graphene humidity sensor working in a novel sensing mode for portable electronics.ACS Appl Mater Interf2018;10:23987-96

[9] Liu G,Kou H.A flexible temperature sensor based on reduced graphene oxide for robot skin used in internet of things.Sensors2018;18:1400 PMCID:PMC5982612

[10] Alonso E, Shin DW, Rajan G, Neves AIS, Russo S, Craciun MF. Water-based solution processing and wafer-scale integration of all-graphene humidity sensors.Adv Sci2019;6:1802318 PMCID:PMC6685499

[11] Nicholls B,Kanjo E.An EMG-based eating behaviour monitoring system with haptic feedback to promote mindful eating.Comput Biol Med2022;149:106068

[12] Wang C,Wang H,Yin Z.Advanced carbon for flexible and wearable electronics.Adv Mater2019;31:e1801072

[13] Pang C,Suh K.Recent advances in flexible sensors for wearable and implantable devices: review.J Appl Polym Sci2013;130:1429-41

[14] Gao M,Wang Y.Wearable power management system enables uninterrupted battery-free data-intensive sensing and transmission.Nano Energy2023;107:108107

[15] Lin Y,Lu Q.Thermally laminated lighting textile for wearable displays with high durability.ACS Appl Mater Interf2023;15:5931-41

[16] Sharifuzzaman M,Reza MS.MXene/fluoropolymer-derived laser-carbonaceous all-fibrous nanohybrid patch for soft wearable bioelectronics.Adv Funct Mater

[17] Xu P,Lin A.Conductive and elastic bottlebrush elastomers for ultrasoft electronics.Nat Commun2023;14:623 PMCID:PMC9899285

[18] Sang M,Zhang Y.ultrahigh sensitive au-doped silicon nanomembrane based wearable sensor arrays for continuous skin temperature monitoring with high precision.Adv Mater2022;34:e2105865

[19] Wong TH,Li J.Triboelectric nanogenerator tattoos enabled by epidermal electronic technologies.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2111269

[20] Park S,Zavanelli N.Fully screen-printed PI/PEG blends enabled patternable electrodes for scalable manufacturing of skin-conformal, stretchable, wearable electronics.ACS Appl Mater Interf2023;15:2092-103

[21] Ban S,Kwon S.Soft wireless headband bioelectronics and electrooculography for persistent human-machine interfaces.ACS Appl Electron Mater2023;5:877-86 PMCID:PMC9979786

[22] Lozano Montero K,Peltokangas M.Self-powered, ultrathin, and transparent printed pressure sensor for biosignal monitoring.ACS Appl Electron Mater2021;3:4362-75

[23] Yu Y,Solomon SA.All-printed soft human-machine interface for robotic physicochemical sensing.Sci Robot2022;7:eabn0495 PMCID:PMC9302713

[24] Park KT,Jeong I.Highly integrated, wearable carbon-nanotube-yarn-based thermoelectric generators achieved by selective inkjet-printed chemical doping.Adv Energy Mater2022;12:2200256

[25] Li W,Gao J.Large-scale ultra-robust MoS₂ patterns directly synthesized on polymer substrate for flexible sensing electronics.Adv Mater2023;35:e2207447

[26] Galliani M,Bouet G,Ismailova E.Tailoring inkjet-printed PEDOT: PSS composition toward green, wearable device fabrication.APL Bioeng2023;7:016101 PMCID:PMC9812513

[27] Karlsbad A.Intramuscular and skin surface temperatures of the resting human superficial masseter muscle.Acta Odontol Scand1991;49:225-31

[28] Liu Y,Wang X.Passive radiative cooling enables improved performance in wearable thermoelectric generators.Small2022;18:e2106875

[29] Kim T,Li Y.Temperature- and size-dependent characteristics in ultrathin inorganic light-emitting diodes assembled by transfer printing.Appl Phys Lett2014;104:051901

[30] Chiesa ST,Kalsi KK.Local temperature-sensitive mechanisms are important mediators of limb tissue hyperemia in the heat-stressed human at rest and during small muscle mass exercise.Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol2015;309:H369-80 PMCID:PMC4504966

[31] Zhao C,Gao L.High-performance liquid metal/polyborosiloxane elastomer toward thermally conductive applications.ACS Appl Mater Interf2022;14:21564-76

[32] Zhang Q,Zhang X.Self-healing, elastic and deformable novel composite phase change polymer based on thermoplastic elastomer SEBS for wearable devices.J Mater Sci2022;57:7208-24

[33] Yang W,Ni F.Biomass-derived nanostructured coatings based on cellulose nanofibers-melanin hybrids toward solar-enabled multifunctional energy management.Nano Energy2022;97:107180

[34] Li L,Bai Y.Enhancing hydrovoltaic power generation through heat conduction effects.Nat Commun2022;13:1043 PMCID:PMC8873497

[35] Jung Y,Yoon Y,Lee J.Soft multi-modal thermoelectric skin for dual functionality of underwater energy harvesting and thermoregulation.Nano Energy2022;95:107002

[36] Ren W,Zhao D.High-performance wearable thermoelectric generator with self-healing, recycling, and Lego-like reconfiguring capabilities.Sci Adv2021;7 PMCID:PMC7875524

[37] Luo H,Xu Z.Outdoor personal thermal management with simultaneous electricity generation.Nano Lett2021;21:3879-86

[38] Kou Y,Luo J.An intrinsically flexible phase change film for wearable thermal managements.Energy Stor Mater2021;34:508-14

[39] Gao S,Li J.Facile fabrication of large-area BN films for thermal management in flexible electronics.Compos Commun2022;36:101392

[40] Hong H,Lee JS.Anisotropic thermal conductive composite by the guided assembly of boron nitride nanosheets for flexible and stretchable electronics.Adv Funct Mater2019;29:1902575

[41] Chen J,Sun B.Highly thermally conductive yet electrically insulating polymer/boron nitride nanosheets nanocomposite films for improved thermal management capability.ACS Nano2019;13:337-45

[42] Kang MH,Lee JH.Outdoor-useable, wireless/battery-free patch-type tissue oximeter with radiative cooling.Adv Sci2021;8:2004885

[43] Byun SH,Heo SY.Self-cooling gallium-based transformative electronics with a radiative cooler for reliable stiffness tuning in outdoor use.Adv Sci2022;9:e2202549

[44] Xiao C,Li Z.Custom design of solid-solid phase change material with ultra-high thermal stability for battery thermal management.J Mater Chem A2020;8:14624-33

[45] Okabe T,Okajima J,Maruyama S.Non-invasive measurement of effective thermal conductivity of human skin with a guard-heated thermistor probe.Int J Heat Mass Transf2018;126:625-35

[46] Jung HH,Nie S.Thin metallic heat sink for interfacial thermal management in biointegrated optoelectronic devices.Adv Mater Technol2018;3:1800159

[47] Yang X,Wang T.Wet-adhesive on-skin sensors based on metal-organic frameworks for wireless monitoring of metabolites in sweat.Adv Mater2022;34:e2201768

[48] Bandhauer TM,Fuller TF.A critical review of thermal issues in lithium-ion batteries.J Electrochem Soc2011;158:R1

[49] Liu Z,Shan C,Li J.Assessing the impact of current control on the thermal management performance of thermoelectric cooling systems.Int J Energy Res2021;45:7256-69

[50] Xu H,Wu B.Highly integrable thermoelectric fiber.ACS Appl Mater Interf2020;12:33297-304

[51] Lee SM,Lee JH.Self-adhesive epidermal carbon nanotube electronics for tether-free long-term continuous recording of biosignals.Sci Rep2014;4:6074 PMCID:PMC4133715

[52] Yamamoto Y,Takada M.Efficient skin temperature sensor and stable gel-less sticky ECG sensor for a wearable flexible healthcare patch.Adv Healthc Mater2017;6:1700495

[53] Chung HU,Lee JY.Binodal, wireless epidermal electronic systems with in-sensor analytics for neonatal intensive care.Science2019;363

[54] Alizadeh Meghrazi M,Mahnam A.Multichannel ECG recording from waist using textile sensors.Biomed Eng Online2020;19:48 PMCID:PMC7296680

[55] Jinkins KR,Arafa H.Thermally switchable, crystallizable oil and silicone composite adhesives for skin-interfaced wearable devices.Sci Adv2022;8:eabo0537 PMCID:PMC9187235

[56] Kim YS,Chicas R.Soft wireless bioelectronics designed for real-time, continuous health monitoring of farmworkers.Adv Healthc Mater2022;11:e2200170

[57] Kabiri Ameri S,Jang H.Graphene electronic tattoo sensors.ACS Nano2017;11:7634-41

[58] Miyamoto A,Cooray NF.Inflammation-free, gas-permeable, lightweight, stretchable on-skin electronics with nanomeshes.Nat Nanotechnol2017;12:907-13

[59] Pino EJ,Aqueveque P.Wearable EMG shirt for upper limb training.Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc2018;2018:4406-9

[60] Peng Y,Liu B.Integrated cooling (i-Cool) textile of heat conduction and sweat transportation for personal perspiration management.Nat Commun2021;12:6122 PMCID:PMC8531342

[61] Schreiner C,Anderson J. Blood oxygen level measurement with a chest-based pulse oximetry prototype system. Available from: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/5738028/references#references [Last accessed on 13 Apr 2023]

[62] Yokota T,Kaltenbrunner M.Ultraflexible organic photonic skin.Sci Adv2016;2:e1501856 PMCID:PMC4846460

[63] Kim J,Chiarelli AM.Miniaturized battery-free wireless systems for wearable pulse oximetry.Adv Funct Mater2017;27:1604373

[64] Xu H,Zhang J,Luo N.Flexible organic/inorganic hybrid near-infrared photoplethysmogram sensor for cardiovascular monitoring.Adv Mater2017;29:1700975

[65] Kang MH,Yun JH.NFC-based wearable optoelectronics working with smartphone application for untact healthcare.Sensors2021;21:878 PMCID:PMC7865650

[66] Webb RC,Behnaz A.Ultrathin conformal devices for precise and continuous thermal characterization of human skin.Nat Mater2013;12:938-44

[67] Dankoco M,Benevent E.Temperature sensor realized by inkjet printing process on flexible substrate.Mater Sci Eng B2016;205:1-5

[68] Wu J,Xu H.An intrinsically stretchable humidity sensor based on anti-drying, self-healing and transparent organohydrogels.Mater Horiz2019;6:595-603

[69] Lan L,Dong H,Ying Y.One-step and large-scale fabrication of flexible and wearable humidity sensor based on laser-induced graphene for real-time tracking of plant transpiration at bio-interface.Biosens Bioelectron2020;165:112360

[70] Lu Y,Zhang L.Multimodal plant healthcare flexible sensor system.ACS Nano2020;14:10966-75

[71] Soni M,Ntagios M.Printed temperature sensor based on PEDOT: PSS-graphene oxide composite.IEEE Sensors J2020;20:7525-31

[72] Wang YF,Takeda Y.Fully printed PEDOT: PSS-based temperature sensor with high humidity stability for wireless healthcare monitoring.Sci Rep2020;10:2467 PMCID:PMC7016104

[73] Pi C,Chen W.A reversible and fast-responsive humidity sensor based on a lead-free Cs₂TeCl₆ double perovskite.Mater Adv2021;2:1043-9

[74] Villarejo MV,Zorrilla AM.A stress sensor based on Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) controlled by ZigBee.Sensors2012;12:6075-101 PMCID:PMC3386730

[75] Kurniawan H,Pechenizkiy M.Stress detection from speech and galvanic skin response signals. In Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems; 20-22 June 2013; Porto: Portugal; 2013.

[76] Seoane F,Ferreira J.Wearable biomedical measurement systems for assessment of mental stress of combatants in real time.Sensors2014;14:7120-41 PMCID:PMC4029694

[77] Kim H,Mahmood M.Fully integrated, stretchable, wireless skin-conformal bioelectronics for continuous stress monitoring in daily life.Adv Sci2020;7:2000810 PMCID:PMC7404159

[78] Koh A,Xue Y.A soft, wearable microfluidic device for the capture, storage, and colorimetric sensing of sweat.Sci Transl Med2016;8:366ra165

[79] Choi J,Han S,Rogers JA.Thin, soft, skin-mounted microfluidic networks with capillary bursting valves for chrono-sampling of sweat.Adv Healthc Mater2017;6:1601355

[80] Ardalan S,Vosough M.Towards smart personalized perspiration analysis: an IoT-integrated cellulose-based microfluidic wearable patch for smartphone fluorimetric multi-sensing of sweat biomarkers.Biosens Bioelectron2020;168:112450

[81] Baker LB,Barnes KA.Skin-interfaced microfluidic system with personalized sweating rate and sweat chloride analytics for sports science applications.Sci Adv2020;6 PMCID:PMC7732194

[82] Li S,Cao Z,Shi Y.Advanced wearable microfluidic sensors for healthcare monitoring.Small2020;16:e1903822

[83] Padash M,Carrara S.Microfluidics by additive manufacturing for wearable biosensors: a review.Sensors2020;20:4236 PMCID:PMC7435802

[84] Song Y,Yu Y.Wireless battery-free wearable sweat sensor powered by human motion.Sci Adv2020;6 PMCID:PMC7527225

[85] Smith DS,Bourret J.Thermal conductivity of porous materials.J Mater Res2013;28:2260-72

[86] Zhang X,Lou L.Personal thermal management by thermally conductive composites: a review.Compos Commun2021;23:100595

[87] Pola T,Hännikäinen J.Thermal performance analysis of 13 heat sink materials suitable for wearable electronics applications.Sci Technol2013;3:67-73

[88] Candadai AA,Burke JS,Marconnet AM.Thermal and mechanical characterization of high performance polymer fabrics for applications in wearable devices.Sci Rep2021;11:8705 PMCID:PMC8062592

[89] Hardy JD.Regulation of heat loss from the human body.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA1937;23:624-31 PMCID:PMC1077009

[90] Voelker C,Kornadt O,Zhang H. Heat and moisture transfer through clothing. Available from: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8qk6h840 [Last accessed on 13 Apr 2023]

[91] Ko JH,Hong SH,Song YM.Polarization-driven thermal emission regulator based on self-aligned GST nanocolumns.iScience2023;26:105780 PMCID:PMC9800319

[92] Seo DH,Kim DH,Lee GJ.Spatially-segmented colored radiative cooler with angle-robustness.IEEE Photonics J2022;14:1-6

[93] Kim DH,Heo SY.Ultra-thin and near-unity selective emitter for efficient cooling.Opt Express2021;29:31364-75

[94] Kim DH,Heo S,Song YM.Thermostat property of Janus emitter in enclosures.Solar Energy Mater Solar Cells2021;230:111173

[95] Raman AP,Zhu L,Fan S.Passive radiative cooling below ambient air temperature under direct sunlight.Nature2014;515:540-4

[96] Yazdi M, Sheikhzadeh M. Personal cooling garments: a review.J Text Inst2014;105:1231-50

[97] GJ, Heo S-Y, Kang I-S, Song YM. Thermostat property of Janus emitter in enclosures.Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells2021;230:111173

[98] Xu L,Tian Y,Zhu Z.Nanocomposite hydrogel for daytime passive cooling enabled by combined effects of radiative and evaporative cooling.Chem Eng J2023;457:141231

[99] Congalton D. Shape memory alloys for use in thermally activated clothing, protection against flame and heat. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1018(199909/10)23:5%3C223::AID-FAM687%3E3.0.CO;2-K [Last accessed on 13 Apr 2023]

[100] Shimazaki Y.Spatiotemporal sweat evaporation and evaporative cooling in thermal environments determined from wearable sensors.Appl Therm Eng2019;163:114422

[101] Mondal S.Phase change materials for smart textiles - an overview.Appl Therm Eng2008;28:1536-50

[102] Shi Y,Yin Y,Xing Y.Analytical transient phase change heat transfer model of wearable electronics with a thermal protection substrate.Appl Math Mech Engl Ed2020;41:1599-610

[103] Liu P,Chen X.In situ one-step construction of monolithic silica aerogel-based composite phase change materials for thermal protection.Compos Part B Eng2020;195:108072

[104] Chen W,Zou J.Wearable fiber-based thermoelectrics from materials to applications.Nano Energy2021;81:105684

[105] Selvam C,Krishna NV,Kaushik S.Enhanced thermal performance of a thermoelectric generator with phase change materials.Int Commun Heat Mass Transf2020;114:104561

[106] Zaferani SH,Ghomashchi R.Thermoelectric coolers as thermal management systems for medical applications: design, optimization, and advancement.Nano Energy2021;90:106572

[107] Bahru R,Mohamed MA.Thermal management of wearable and implantable electronic healthcare devices: perspective and measurement approach.Int J Energy Res2021;45:1517-34

[108] Edwards RH,Hultman E,Koh D.Effect of temperature on muscle energy metabolism and endurance during successive isometric contractions, sustained to fatigue, of the quadriceps muscle in man.J Physiol1972;220:335-52 PMCID:PMC1331706

[109] Heinonen I,Kemppainen J,Kalliokoski KK.Local heating, but not indirect whole body heating, increases human skeletal muscle blood flow.J Appl Physiol2011;111:818-24 PMCID:PMC3174790

[110] Xu Y,Song B.Nanostructured polymer films with metal-like thermal conductivity.Nat Commun2019;10:1771 PMCID:PMC6467866

[111] Han Z.Thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes and their polymer nanocomposites: a review.Prog Polym Sci2011;36:914-44

[112] Kang SJ,Jeong C.Avoiding heating interference and guided thermal conduction in stretchable devices using thermal conductive composite islands.Nano Res2021;14:3253-9

[113] Gao T,Chen C.Three-dimensional printed thermal regulation textiles.ACS Nano2017;11:11513-20

[114] Yu X,Wang X,Yu J.Thermoconductive, moisture-permeable, and superhydrophobic nanofibrous membranes with interpenetrated boron nitride network for personal cooling fabrics.ACS Appl Mater Interf2020;12:32078-89

[115] Tan C,Li Y.A high performance wearable strain sensor with advanced thermal management for motion monitoring.Nat Commun2020;11:3530 PMCID:PMC7363829

[116] Heo S,Song YM.Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential.J Mater Chem C2022;10:9915-37

[117] Lee GJ,Kim HM,Song YM.Colored, daytime radiative coolers with thin-film resonators for aesthetic purposes.Adv Opt Mater2018;6:1800707

[118] Xu Y,Ling Y.Multiscale porous elastomer substrates for multifunctional on-skin electronics with passive-cooling capabilities.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA2020;117:205-13

[119] Tang KM,Kan CW.Assessing the accumulated stickiness magnitude from fabric-skin friction: effect of wetness level of various fabrics.R Soc Open Sci2018;5:180860 PMCID:PMC6124082

[120] Peng Y,Liu B.Integrated cooling (i-Cool) textile of heat conduction and sweat transportation for personal perspiration management.Nat Commun2021;12:6122

[121] Zhou Y,Wang F.Performance analysis of a novel thermoelectric assisted indirect evaporative cooling system.Energy2018;162:299-308

[122] Chen Y,Yang D,Liang H.Multifunctional hybrid membranes with enhanced heat dissipation and sweat transportation for wearable applications.ACS Appl Energy Mater2022;5:11892-9

[123] Zhang X,Shao Z.A moisture-wicking passive radiative cooling hierarchical metafabric.ACS Nano2022;16:2188-97

[124] Wang C,Yan H,Tu Y.A thermal management strategy for electronic devices based on moisture sorption-desorption processes.Joule2020;4:435-47

[125] Férey G,Serre C.A chromium terephthalate-based solid with unusually large pore volumes and surface area.Science2005;309:2040-2

[126] Zhang Z,Yan Y.A review of the state-of-the-art in electronic cooling.e-Prime Adv Electr Eng Electron Energy2021;1:100009

[127] Yang L,Bai L.Flexible shape-stabilized phase change materials with passive radiative cooling capability for thermal management.Chem Eng J2021;425:131466

[128] Zhao X,Wang S.Flexible phase change materials: preparation, properties and application.Chem Eng J2022;431:134231

[129] Nie S,Yang H.Soft, stretchable thermal protective substrates for wearable electronics.NPJ Flex Electron2022;6

[130] Shi Y,Yin Y,Xing Y.Functional soft composites as thermal protecting substrates for wearable electronics.Adv Funct Mater2019;29:1905470

[131] Jung Y,Kim M,Lee J.High heat storing and thermally diffusive artificial skin for wearable thermal management.Nano Energy2023;105:107979

[132] Sun N.A flexible composite phase change material with ultrahigh stretchability for thermal management in wearable electronics.J Mater Sci2021;56:15937-49

[133] Choi J,Forsythe C,Urban JJ.Lightweight wearable thermoelectric cooler with rationally designed flexible heatsink consisting of phase-change material/graphite/silicone elastomer.J Mater Chem A2021;9:15696-703

[134] Sun W,Liu Q.Advances in thermoelectric devices for localized cooling.Chem Eng J2022;450:138389

[135] Kishore RA,Poudel B,Priya S.Ultra-high performance wearable thermoelectric coolers with less materials.Nat Commun2019;10:1765 PMCID:PMC6468009

[136] Hong S,Seo JK.Wearable thermoelectrics for personalized thermoregulation.Sci Adv2019;5:eaaw0536 PMCID:PMC6524982

[137] Zhang T,Zhang J.High-performance, flexible, and ultralong crystalline thermoelectric fibers.Nano Energy2017;41:35-42

[138] Lee J,Lee W.Stretchable skin-like cooling/heating device for reconstruction of artificial thermal sensation in virtual reality.Adv Funct Mater2020;30:1909171

[139] Han WB,Kim D.Zebra-inspired stretchable, biodegradable radiation modulator for all-day sustainable energy harvesters.Sci Adv2023;9:eadf5883 PMCID:PMC9891689

[140] Ju YS.Thermal management and control of wearable devices.iScience2022;25:104587 PMCID:PMC9240862

[141] Jeong H,Ha T.Modular and reconfigurable wireless E-tattoos for personalized sensing.Adv Mater Technol2019;4:1900117