Sustainable Bioplastic Using Lignin Extracted from Neolamarckia cadamba Bark by Deep Eutectic Solvent

Abstract

Lignin, a highly complex and abundant biopolymer, forms an integral part of plant cell walls and represents a promising resource for sustainable industrial applications. Lignin has recently gained attention due to its potential use in biofuels, bioplastics, adhesives, and antioxidant formulations. This paper focuses on lignin extraction from Neolamarckia cadamba bark by deep eutectic solvent (DES) composed of thymol and menthol. Extracted lignin and starch (extracted from Colocasia esculenta roots) were used for the synthesis of bioplastic. The extracted lignin was characterized through multiple analytical techniques, including UV-V is spectroscopy, FTIR, and visual staining with safranin. Bioplastic was characterized for thermal resistance, absorbance, and solubility. The moisture content was obtained as 29.59%, water solubility as 72.61% with almost completely (98%) biodegradable. The work contributes to valorising environmental biomass and enhancing the industrial relevance of lignin. Furthermore, it aligns with the sustainable development goals by transforming bio-waste into valuable bioproducts, such as bioplastics, biochemicals, bioadsorbents, etc. The outcomes of this research may serve as a foundation for future studies in lignin-based material innovation and biorefinery integration.

Keywords

Lignin / Lignocellulosic biomass / Neolamarckia cadamba / Colocasia esculenta / Lignin extraction / Deep eutectic solvent (DES) / Bio-based polymers / Bioplastics

Statement of the Use of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

During the preparation of this manuscript, the author(s) used QuillBot to improve the clarity and readability of certain sections of the text. QuillBot was used solely as a language enhancement tool and not as a substitute for the author(s)’ own interpretation, analysis, or scientific reasoning. After using QuillBot, the author(s) thoroughly reviewed, verified all content to ensure accuracy, originality, and compliance with ethical publication standards. The author(s) take full responsibility for the integrity and final quality of the published article.

Author Contributions

H.R.—Methodology, Formal Analysis, validation, Writing Original Draft Preparation. A.T.—Conceptualization, Data curation, writing—review & editing, D.S.—Conceptualization, Supervision, Project Administration, R.C.—Conceptualization, Supervision, Project Administration, K.W.—Conceptualization, Supervision, Project Administration.

Ethics Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available on request.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References

[1] Al-Battashi HS, Annamalai N, Sivakumar N, Al-Bahry S, Tripathi BN, Nguyen QD, et al. Lignocellulosic biomass (LCB): A potential alternative biorefinery feedstock for polyhydroxyalkanoates production. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol. 2019, 18, 183-205. doi:10.1007/s11157-018-09488-4.

[2] Alawad I, Ibrahim H. Pretreatment of agricultural lignocellulosic biomass for fermentable sugar: Opportunities, challenges, and future trends. Biomass Convers. Biorefin. 2022, 14, 6155-6183. doi:10.1007/s13399-022-02981-5.

[3] Nanda S, Patra BR, Patel R, Bakos J, Dalai AK. Innovations in applications and prospects of bioplastics and biopolymers: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2021, 20, 379-395. doi:10.1007/s10311-021-01334-4.

[4] Singh SK, Dhepe PL. Isolation of lignin by organosolv process from different varieties of rice husk: Understanding their physical and chemical properties. Bioresour. Technol. 2016, 221, 310-317. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.09.042.

[5] Ververis C, Georghiou K, Christodoulakis N, Santas P, Santas R. Fiber dimensions, lignin and cellulose content of various plant materials and their suitability for paper production. Ind. Crops Prod. 2004, 19, 245-254. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2003.10.006.

[6] Balan S, Ramalingam G, Selvakumar D, Adhimoolam K, Jayakodi M, Arunachalam B, et al. A review of Kadamba (Neolamarckia cadamba): An invaluable medicinal plant. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 2025, 72, 5093-5113. doi:10.1007/s10722-025-02329-8.

[7] Li J, Huang X, Huang H, Huo H, Nguyen CD, Pian R, et al. Cloning and characterization of the lignin biosynthesis genes NcCSE and NcHCT from Neolamarckia cadamba. AMB Express 2019, 9, 152. doi:10.1186/s13568-019-0860-z.

[8] Mishra A, Mishra TK, Nanda S, Mohanty MK, Dash M. A comprehensive review on genetic modification of plant cell wall for improved saccharification efficiency. Mol. Biol. Rep. 2023, 50, 10509-10524. doi:10.1007/s11033-023-08886-4.

[9] Arisandi R, Ihda FV, Nirsatmanto A, Sunarti S, Lukmandaru G, Tsuchikawa S, et al. Characterization of Chemical Components in the Wood and Bark of Anthocephalus cadamba and Anthocephalus macrophyllus from Progeny Trial in Wonogiri, Indonesia. BIO Web Conf. 2025, 167, 06001. doi:10.1051/bioconf/202516706001.

[10] Kaushal P, Kumar V, Sharma HK. Utilization of taro (Colocasia esculenta): A review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2013, 52, 27-40. doi:10.1007/s13197-013-0933-y.

[11] Majzoobi M, Farahnaky A. Granular cold-water swelling starch; properties, preparation and applications, a review. Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 111, 106393. doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106393.

[12] Ranathunga RAA, Suwannaporn P. Young cereal grains as a new source of healthy and hypoallergenic foods: A review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 59, 3336-3348. doi:10.1007/s13197-021-05228-9.

[13] Van Osch DJ, Dietz CH, Van Spronsen J, Kroon MC, Gallucci F, van Sint Annaland M, et al. A Search for Natural Hydrophobic Deep Eutectic Solvents Based on Natural Components. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2019, 7, 2933-2942. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b03520.

[14] Bagović Kolić M, Železnjak M, Markov K, Gaurina Srček V, Cvjetko Bubalo M, Radošević K, et al. Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Menthol and Thymol-Based Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents. Molecules 2025, 30, 1713. doi:10.3390/molecules30081713.

[15] Bedair HM, Samir TM, Mansour FR. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of natural deep eutectic solvents. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2024, 108, 198. doi:10.1007/s00253-024-13044-2.

[16] Sammons RJ, Harper DP, Labbé N, Bozell JJ, Elder T, Rials TG. Characterisation of Organosolv Lignins using Thermal and FT-IR Spectroscopic Analysis. BioResources 2013, 8, 2752-2767. DOI:10.15376/biores.8.2.2752-2767.

[17] Huang Y, Wang L, Chao Y, Nawawi DS, Akiyama T, Yokoyama T, et al. Analysis of Lignin Aromatic Structure in Wood Based on the IR Spectrum. J. Wood Chem. Technol. 2012, 32, 294-303. doi:10.1080/02773813.2012.666316.

[18] Zhuang J, Li M, Pu Y, Ragauskas A, Yoo C. Observation of Potential Contaminants in Processed Biomass Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4345. doi:10.3390/app10124345.

[19] Barsberg S, Matousek P, Towrie M. Structural Analysis of Lignin by Resonance Raman Spectroscopy. Macromol. Biosci. 2005, 5, 743-752. doi:10.1002/mabi.200500042.

[20] Zhang Y, Naebe M. Lignin: A Review on Structure, Properties, and Applications as a Light-Colored UV Absorbe. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 1427-1442. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06998.

[21] Yang J, Ching Y, Chuah C. Applications of Lignocellulosic Fibers and Lignin in Bioplastics: A Review. Polymers 2019, 11, 751. doi:10.3390/polym11050751.

[22] Baldacci-Cresp F, Spriet C, Twyffels L, Blervacq A, Neutelings G, Baucher M, et al. A rapid and quantitative safranin-based fluorescent microscopy method to evaluate cell wall lignification. Plant J. 2020, 102, 1074-1089. doi:10.1111/tpj.14675.

[23] Weligama Thuppahige VT, Moghaddam L, Welsh ZG, Wang T, Xiao HW, Karim A. Extraction and Characterisation of starch from cassava agro-industrial waste. LWT 2023, 182, 114787. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2023.114787.

[24] Folino A, Pangallo D, Calabrò PS. Assessing Bioplastics biodegradability by std and research methods: Current trends & open issues. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2023, 11, 109424. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2023.109424.