A source-tailored engineering framework for methane bioconversion: from abatement infrastructure to biomanufacturing platforms

Abstract

While methanotroph-based bioconversion is a promising solution for mitigating methane emissions, its industrialization remains constrained. This limitation stems from substantial physicochemical disparities among real-world emission sources, highlighting a profound disconnect between laboratory-scale achievements and practical operational barriers. To bridge this divide, this review proposes a comprehensive, source-tailored decision-making framework. For diffuse emissions, the energy deficits caused by large volumetric overheads mandate an energy-minimized abatement strategy. Conversely, centralized point sources offer strong concentration driving forces that justify capital-intensive, high-efficiency biomanufacturing platforms to maximize productivity. Furthermore, guided by techno-economic analysis, we diagnose specific engineering bottlenecks, confirming that process improvements must strictly align with distinct market profiles, ranging from bulk single-cell protein and mid-value polyhydroxyalkanoates to high-value ectoine. Finally, we outline how prospective research frontiers can disrupt current technological paradigms. Strain-process multiscale modeling resolves the critical scale-up hurdle, and digital twin-based verification systems translate measurement uncertainties into tradable carbon assets. Moreover, co-producing site-integrated bio-fertilizers via nitrogen fixation can transform low-concentration abatement infrastructures into self-sustaining models. Although tailored approaches are currently necessary, central to future transitions is utilizing ultra-low-level methane enrichment to converge diffuse capture with centralized biomanufacturing. Advancing this frontier could eventually enable a truly integrated, universal methane biorefinery.

Keywords

Methane abatement / Methanotrophs / Value-added biomanufacturing / Bottleneck diagnosis / Techno-economic analysis

References

[1] Ahmadi F, Bodraya T, Lackner M. Methane Biofiltration Processes: A Summary of Biotic and Abiotic Factors. Methane, 2024, 3(1122-48

[2] Allegue T, Arias A, Fernandez-Gonzalez N, Omil F, Garrido JM. Enrichment of nitrite-dependent anaerobic methane oxidizing bacteria in a membrane bioreactor. Chem Eng J, 2018, 347: 721-30

[3] Amabile C, Abate T, Chianese S, Munoz R, Musmarra D. Economic evaluation of a large-scale PHBV production facility: impact of polymer content on the final selling price. Chem Eng Trans, 2024, 110: 259-64

[4] Arıman S, Koyuncu S. Removal of hydrogen sulfide in biogas from wastewater treatment sludge by real-scale biotrickling filtration desulfurization process. Water Pract Technol, 2022, 17(7): 1406-20

[5] Barbusiński K, Kalemba K. Use of biological methods for removal of H2S from biogas in wastewater treatment plants–a review. Archit Civil Eng Environ, 2016, 9(1): 103-12

[6] Becker CM, Marder M, Junges E, Konrad O. Technologies for biogas desulfurization-An overview of recent studies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2022, 159: 112205

[7] Benn N, Zitomer D. Pretreatment and Anaerobic Co-digestion of Selected PHB and PLA Bioplastics. Front Environ Sci, 2018, 5: 93

[8] Bhat EH, Henard JM, Lee SA, McHalffey D, Ravulapati MS, Rogers EV, et al.. Construction of a broad-host-range Anderson promoter series and particulate methane monooxygenase promoter variants expand the methanotroph genetic toolbox. Synth Syst Biotechnol, 2024, 9(2): 250-8

[9] Boyle A. Climate change, the Paris Agreement and human rights. Int Comp L Q, 2018, 67(4): 759-77

[10] Bragança I, Sánchez-Soberón F, Pantuzza GF, Alves A, Ratola N. Impurities in biogas: Analytical strategies, occurrence, effects and removal technologies. Biomass Bioenergy, 2020, 143: 105878

[11] Brenzinger K, Glatter T, Hakobyan A, Meima-Franke M, Zweers H, Liesack W, et al.. Exploring modes of microbial interactions with implications for methane cycling. FEMS Microbiol Ecol, 2024, 100(9): fiae112

[12] Cai Y, Zheng Y, Bodelier PLE, Conrad R, Jia Z. Conventional methanotrophs are responsible for atmospheric methane oxidation in paddy soils. Nat Commun, 2016, 7(1): 11728

[13] Cai Y, Zhou X, Shi L, Jia Z. Atmospheric Methane Oxidizers Are Dominated by Upland Soil Cluster Alpha in 20 Forest Soils of China. Microb Ecol, 2020, 80(4): 859-71

[14] Cantera S, Sánchez-Andrea I, Lebrero R, García-Encina PA, Stams AJM, Muñoz R. Multi-production of high added market value metabolites from diluted methane emissions via methanotrophic extremophiles. Bioresour Technol. 2018;267:401–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2018.07.057

[15] Carmona-Martínez AA, Marcos-Rodrigo E, Bordel S, Marín D, Herrero-Lobo R, García-Encina PA. Elucidating the key environmental parameters during the production of ectoines from biogas by mixed methanotrophic consortia. J Environ Manag. 2021;298:113462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113462

[16] Chen JM. Carbon neutrality: toward a sustainable future. The Innovation. 2021;2(3):100127. . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2021.100127

[17] Cheng X, Zeng Z, Liu X, Li L, Wang H, Zhao R et al. Methanotrophs dominate methanogens and act as a methane sink in a subterranean karst cave. Sci Total Environ. 2023;892:164562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164562

[18] Cho S, Jung K, Shin Y, Kim I, Jun SH, Hong HJ, et al.. Soft-sensing strategy for real-time biomass and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) estimation in methanotrophic cultures using dissolved oxygen and base addition signals. J Biotechnol, 2025, 410: 258-65

[19] Choi Y, Jung W, Lee H, Cho S, Lee J. Methylotuvimicrobium alcaliphilum 20Z based ectoine production from various industrial CH₄ sources: Cultivation optimization and comprehensive analysis. Chem Eng J, 2024, 499: 156039

[20] Cogert KI, Ziels RM, Winkler MKH. Reducing cost and environmental impact of wastewater treatment with denitrifying methanotrophs, anammox, and mainstream anaerobic treatment. Environ Sci Technol, 2019, 53(21): 12935-44

[21] Comesana-Gándara B, García-Depraect O, Santos-Beneit F, Bordel S, Lebrero R, Muñoz R. Recent trends and advances in biogas upgrading and methanotrophs-based valorization. Chem Eng J Adv, 2022, 11: 100325

[22] Costa RB, Lens PNL, Foresti E. Methanotrophic denitrification in wastewater treatment: microbial aspects and engineering strategies. Crit Rev Biotechnol, 2022, 42(1): 145-61

[23] Cui M, Ma A, Qi H, Zhuang X, Zhuang G. Anaerobic oxidation of methane: an active microbial process. Microbiologyopen, 2015, 4(1): 1-11

[24] Dave GA, Javia BM, Vyas SJ, Kothari RK, Patel RK, Dudhagara DR. Recent breakthrough in methanotrophy: Promising applications and future challenges. J Environ Chem Eng, 2025, 13(2): 115371

[25] del Rosario Rodero M, Pérez V, Muñoz R. Optimization of methane gas-liquid mass transfer during biogas-based ectoine production in bubble column bioreactors. J Environ Manage, 2024, 366: 121811

[26] DiSpirito AA, Semrau JD, Murrell JC, Gallagher WH, Dennison C, Vuilleumier S. Methanobactin and the link between copper and bacterial methane oxidation. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, 2016, 80(2): 387-409

[27] El Abbadi SH, Sherwin ED, Brandt AR, Luby SP, Criddle CS. Displacing fishmeal with protein derived from stranded methane. Nat Sustain, 2022, 5: 47-56

[28] Estrada JM, Lebrero R, Quijano G, Pérez R, Figueroa-González I, García-Encina PA, et al.. Methane abatement in a gas-recycling biotrickling filter: Evaluating innovative operational strategies to overcome mass transfer limitations. Chem Eng J, 2014, 253: 385-93

[29] Fonseca-Bermúdez ÓJ, Giraldo L, Sierra-Ramírez R, Moreno-Piraján JC. Removal of hydrogen sulfide from biogas by adsorption and photocatalysis: a review. Environ Chem Lett, 2023, 21(2): 1059-73

[30] Fumoto T, Kobayashi K, Li C, Yagi K, Hasegawa T. Revising a process-based biogeochemistry model (DNDC) to simulate methane emission from rice paddy fields under various residue management and fertilizer regimes. Glob Change Biol, 2008, 14(2): 382-402

[31] Gao Z, Guo S, Chen Y, Chen H, Fu R, Song Q, A novel nutritional induction strategy flexibly switching the biosynthesis of food-like products from methane by a methanotrophic bacterium. Green Chem. 2024;26:7048–7058 https://doi.org/10.1039/D3GC04674E

[32] Gao L, Khoo SC, Zhang Z, Wu X. Trends in sustainable single-cell protein from non-grain feedstocks. Trends Biotechnol, 2026, 44: 65-78

[33] Gęsicka E, Oleskowicz-Popiel A, Łężyk P et al. M. Recent trends in methane to bioproduct conversion by methanotrophs. Biotechnol Adv. 2021;53:107861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107861

[34] Gillespie LD, Ars S, Worthy C, Brantley H, Green R, Scarpelli TR, et al.. Comparison of landfill methane emission quantification using multiple observation methods. ACS ES&T Air, 2025, 2(12): 2786-98

[35] Golmakani A, Nabavi SA, Wadi B, Manovic V. Advances, challenges, and perspectives of biogas cleaning, upgrading, and utilisation. Fuel, 2022, 317: 123085

[36] Hanson RS, Hanson TE. Methanotrophic bacteria. Microbiol Rev, 1996, 60(2): 439-71

[37] He L, Lidstrom ME. Utilisation of low methane concentrations by methanotrophs. Adv Microb Physiol, 2024, 85: 57-96

[38] He Z, Cai C, Wang J, Xu X, Zheng P, Jetten MSM, et al.. A novel denitrifying methanotroph of the NC10 phylum and its microcolony. Sci Rep, 2016, 6(1): 32241

[39] He L, Groom JD, Wilson EH, Fernandez J, Konopka MC, Beck DAC, et al.. A methanotrophic bacterium to enable methane removal for climate mitigation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2023, 120(35): e2310046120

[40] Henard CA, Smith H, Dowe N, Kalyuzhnaya MG, Pienkos PT, Guarnieri MT. Bioconversion of methane to lactate by an obligate methanotrophic bacterium. Sci Rep, 2016, 6(1): 21585

[41] Henard CA, Franklin TG, Youhenna B, But S, Alexander D, Kalyuzhnaya MG, et al.. Biogas biocatalysis: methanotrophic bacterial cultivation, metabolite profiling, and bioconversion to lactic acid. Front Microbiol, 2018, 9: 2610

[42] Hong HJ, Hyung JS, Lee J, Na JG. Effects of methane to oxygen ratio on cell growth and polyhydroxybutyrate synthesis in high cell density cultivation of Methylocystis sp. MJC1. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2025, 32(28): 16715-24

[43] Hu B, He Z, Geng S, Cai C, Lou L, Zheng P, et al.. Cultivation of nitrite-dependent anaerobic methane-oxidizing bacteria: impact of reactor configuration. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2014, 98(18): 7983-91

[44] Hyun SW, Krishna S, Chau THT, Lee EY. Methanotrophs mediated biogas valorization: Sustainable route to polyhydroxybutyrate production. Bioresour Technol, 2024, 402: 130759

[45] IPCC 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Calvo Buendia E, Tanabe K, Kranjc A, Baasansuren J, Fukuda M, Ngarize S, Switzerland IPCC et al. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/2019-refinement-to-the-2006-ipcc-guidelines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories/. Accessed 26 Jun 2026.

[46] Jackson RB, Saunois M, Martinez A, Canadell JG, Yu X, Li M, et al.. Human activities now fuel two-thirds of global methane emissions. Environ Res Lett, 2024, 19(10): 101002

[47] Jean AB, Brown RC. Techno-Economic Analysis of Gas Fermentation for the Production of Single Cell Protein. Environ Sci Technol, 2024, 58(8): 3823-9

[48] Jeong J, Kim TH, Jang N, Ko M, Kim SK, Baek JI, et al.. A highly efficient and versatile genetic engineering toolkit for a methanotroph-based biorefinery. Chem Eng J, 2023, 453: 139911

[49] Jiang D, Ge X, Lin L, Chen Z, Zhang Q, Li Y. Biological conversion of methane to methanol at high H2S concentrations with an H2S-tolerant methanotrophic consortium. Renewable Energy, 2023, 204: 475-84

[50] Jung W, Cho S, Choi Y, Lee H, Na JG, Lee J. Methane capture, utilization, and sequestration technology based on biological ectoine production using Methylotuvimicrobium alcaliphilum 20Z. Chem Eng J, 2024, 498: 155339

[51] Kampman C, Hendricks TLG, Luesken FA, van Alen TA, den Camp HJMO, Jetten MSM, et al.. Enrichment of denitrifying methanotrophic bacteria for application after direct low-temperature anaerobic sewage treatment. J Hazard Mater, 2012, 227: 164-71

[52] Kang E, Moon E, Song W, Kim LH, Hyung JS, Jo JH, et al.. Chitosan/oleamide nanofluid as a significant medium for enhancing gas utilization efficiency in C1-gas microbial biotransformation. Chem Eng J, 2022, 433: 133846

[53] Kang M, Cho S, Lee Y, Lee KH, Sohn S, Choi SW, et al.. Quantification of methane and carbon dioxide surface emissions from a metropolitan landfill based on quasi-continuous eddy covariance measurement. Waste Manag, 2024, 186: 355-65

[54] Kang NK, Chau THT, Lee EY. Engineered methane biocatalysis: strategies to assimilate methane for chemical production. Curr Opin Biotechnol, 2024, 85: 103031

[55] Karlson B, Bellavitis C, France N. Commercializing LanzaTech, from waste to fuel: An effectuation case. J Manage Organ, 2021, 27(1): 175-96

[56] Karthikeyan OP, Chidambarampadmavathy K, Cirés S, Heimann K. Review of Sustainable Methane Mitigation and Biopolymer Production. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol, 2015, 45(15): 1579-610

[57] Kharitonov S, Semenov M, Sabrekov A, Kotsyurbenko O, Zhelezova A, Schegolkova N. Microbial communities in methane cycle: modern molecular methods gain insights into their global ecology. Environments, 2021, 8(2): 16

[58] Khoshnevisan B, Tsapekos P, Alfaro N, Díaz I, Fdz-Polanco M, Rafiee S, et al.. A review on prospects and challenges of biological H2S removal from biogas with focus on biotrickling filtration and microaerobic desulfurization. Biofuel Res J, 2017, 4(4): 741-50

[59] La H, Hettiaratchi JPA, Achari G, Verbeke TJ, Dunfield PF. Biofiltration of methane using hybrid mixtures of biochar, lava rock and compost. Environ Pollut, 2018, 241: 45-54

[60] Landgren WN, Handler RM, Shonnard DR, Lidstrom ME. Treating low-concentration methane emissions via a methanotroph-based biotrickling filter: techno-economic and life cycle assessment. Methane, 2025, 4: 23

[61] Lee OK, Lee JS, Yang Y, Hur M, Lee KJ, Lee EY. Advancements in the production of value-added products via methane biotransformation by methanotrophs: current status and future perspectives. J Microbiol, 2025, 63: e2412024

[62] Levett I, Birkett G, Davies N, Bell A, Langford A, Laycock B, et al.. Techno-economic assessment of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) production from methane: the case for thermophilic bioprocessing. J Environ Chem Eng, 2016, 4: 3724-33

[63] Li S, Liu Y, Gao Z, An C, Gu H, Yin H. Methane valorization to antioxidant polysaccharides by methanotrophic bacteria. J Agric Food Chem 2025;73:11019–11029 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c01087

[64] Lidstrom ME. Direct methane removal from air by aerobic methanotrophs. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol, 2024, 16: a041671

[65] Ma D, Qin B, Zhong X, Sheng P, Yin C. Effect of flammable gases produced from spontaneous smoldering combustion of coal on methane explosion in coal mines. Energy, 2023, 279: 128125

[66] Ma C, Jiang T, Sun Q, Xiao X, Shi L, Ai X et al. Sustainable protein production from methane-oxidizing bacteria: environmental and economic comparison with conventional protein sources. Carbon Res. 2026;5:19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44246-025-00256-y

[67] Mannina G, Butler D, Benedetti L, Deletic A, Fowdar H, Fu G, et al.. Greenhouse gas emissions from integrated urban drainage systems: where do we stand?. J Hydrol, 2018, 559: 307-14

[68] McBean EA. Siloxanes in biogases from landfills and wastewater digesters. Can J Civ Eng, 2008, 35(4): 431-6

[69] Michaelowa A, Hermwille L, Obergassel W, Butzengeiger S. Additionality revisited: guarding the integrity of market mechanisms under the Paris Agreement. Clim Policy, 2019, 19: 1211-24

[70] Mohite JA, Khatri K, Pardhi K, Manvi SS, Jadhav R, Rathod S, et al.. Exploring the potential of methanotrophs for plant growth promotion in rice agriculture. Methane, 2023, 2: 361-71

[71] Moss AA, Thompson I, Tharakan J, Reis CER. Methanotrophic technologies for low-concentration methane: reactor designs and performance. Processes, 2026, 14: 969

[72] Nguyen DTN, Lee OK, Lim C, Lee J, Na JG, Lee EY. Metabolic engineering of type II methanotroph, Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, for production of 3-hydroxypropionic acid from methane via a malonyl-CoA reductase-dependent pathway. Metab Eng, 2020, 59: 142-50

[73] Nyerges G, Stein LY. Ammonia cometabolism and product inhibition vary considerably among species of methanotrophic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Lett, 2009, 297(1): 131-6

[74] Ocko IB, Sun T, Shindell D, Oppenheimer M, Hristov AN, Pacala SW, et al.. Acting rapidly to deploy readily available methane mitigation measures by sector can immediately slow global warming. Environ Res Lett, 2021, 16: 054042

[75] Omobolanle OC, Ikiensikimama SS. Gas flaring: technicalities, challenges, and the economic potentials. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2024, 31: 40838-50

[76] Pérez V, Mota CR, Muñoz R, Lebrero R. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production from biogas in waste treatment facilities: assessing the potential impacts on economy, environment and society. Chemosphere, 2020, 255: 126929

[77] Pérez V, Moltó JL, Lebrero R, Muñoz R. Ectoine production from biogas in waste treatment facilities: a techno-economic and sensitivity analysis. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2021, 9: 17371-80

[78] Pei S, Liu P, Parker DA, Mackie RI, Rao CV. Systems analysis of the effect of hydrogen sulfide on the growth of Methylococcus capsulatus Bath. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2022, 106: 7879-90

[79] Peng L, Nie WB, Ding J, Ni BJ, Liu Y, Han HJ, et al.. Denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation and anammox process in a membrane aerated membrane bioreactor: kinetic evaluation and optimization. Environ Sci Technol, 2020, 54: 6968-77

[80] Pham DN, Mai DHA, Nguyen AD, Chau THT, Lee EY. Development of an engineered methanotroph-based microbial platform for biocatalytic conversion of methane to phytohormone for sustainable agriculture. Chem Eng J, 2022, 429: 132522

[81] Pieja AJ, Morse MC, Cal AJ. Methane to bioproducts: the future of the bioeconomy?. Curr Opin Chem Biol, 2017, 41: 123-31

[82] Pokorna D, Carceller JM, Paclik L, Zabranska J. Biogas cleaning by hydrogen sulfide scrubbing and bio-oxidation of captured sulfides. Energy Fuels, 2015, 29: 4058-65

[83] Pol A, Heijmans K, Harhangi HR, Tedesco D, Jetten MSM. Op den Camp HJM. Methanotrophy below pH 1 by a new Verrucomicrobia species. Nature, 2007, 450: 874-8

[84] Probst B, Toetzke M, Kontoleon A, Díaz Anadón L, Minx J, Haya B, et al.. Systematic assessment of the achieved emission reductions of carbon crediting projects. Nat Commun, 2024, 15: 9562

[85] Puri AW, Owen S, Chu F, Chavkin T, Beck DA, Kalyuzhnaya MG, et al.. Genetic tools for the industrially promising methanotroph Methylomicrobium buryatense. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2015, 81(5): 1775-81

[86] Qian J, Wang L, Guo L, Chai T, Chen X. Biological conversion of methane to organic molecules: towards a low-carbon bioeconomy. Natl Sci Rev, 2026, 13: nwaf547

[87] Rani A, Pundir A, Verma M, Joshi S, Verma G, Andjelković S, et al.. Methanotrophy: a biological method to mitigate global methane emission. Microbiol Res, 2024, 15: 634-54

[88] Rasigraf O, Kool DM, Jetten MSM, Sinninghe Damsté JS, Ettwig KF. Autotrophic carbon dioxide fixation via the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle by the denitrifying methanotroph Candidatus Methylomirabilis oxyfera. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2014, 80: 2451-60

[89] Rostkowski KH, Criddle CS, Lepech MD. Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment for a cradle-to-cradle cycle: biogas-to-bioplastic (and back). Environ Sci Technol, 2012, 46: 9822-9

[90] Rumah BL, Claxton Stevens BH, Yeboah JE, Stead CE, Harding EL, Minton NP, et al.. In vivo genome editing in type I and II methanotrophs using a CRISPR/Cas9 system. ACS Synth Biol, 2023, 12: 544-54

[91] Safitri AS, Hamelin J, Kommedal R, Milferstedt K. Engineered methanotrophic syntrophy in photogranule communities removes dissolved methane. Water Res X, 2021, 12: 100106

[92] Sahoo KK, Goswami G, Das D. Biotransformation of methane and carbon dioxide into high-value products by methanotrophs: current state of art and future prospects. Front Microbiol, 2021, 12: 636486

[93] Saunois M, Martinez A, Poulter B, Butler J, Canadell JG, Jackson RB, et al.. Global methane budget 2000–2020. Earth Syst Sci Data, 2025, 17: 1873-958

[94] Sauvageau D, Stein LY, Arenas E, Das S, Iacobelli M, Lawley M, et al.. Industrializing methanotrophs and other methylotrophic bacteria: from bioengineering to product recovery. Curr Opin Biotechnol, 2024, 88: 103167

[95] Scheutz C, Kissas K, Mønster J, Kolmert Strickland Å, Kivistö J, Arvidsson I et al. Quantification of landfill methane emissions: a method comparison study. MEMO2 project report. 2020. https://h2020-memo2.eu/wp-content/uploads/sites/198/2020/06/Quantification-of-landfill-methane-emissions-%E2%80%93-a-method-comparison-study_Final-4_june.pdf. Accessed 30 Apr 2026.

[96] Shi Y, Hu S, Lou J, Lu P, Keller J, Yuan Z. Nitrogen removal from wastewater by coupling anammox and methane-dependent denitrification in a membrane biofilm reactor. Environ Sci Technol, 2013, 47: 11577-83

[97] Söhngen NL. Methane as carbon-food and source of energy for bacteria. KNAW Proc, 1905, 8: 327-31

[98] Song C, Zhu JJ, Willis JL, Moore DP, Zondlo MA, Ren ZJ. Methane emissions from municipal wastewater collection and treatment systems. Environ Sci Technol, 2023, 57: 2248-61

[99] Strong PJ, Kalyuzhnaya M, Silverman J, Clarke WP. A methanotroph-based biorefinery: potential scenarios for generating multiple products from a single fermentation. Bioresour Technol, 2016, 215: 314-23

[100] Strong PJ, Karthikeyan OP, Zhu J, Clarke W, Wu W. Methanotrophs: methane mitigation, denitrification and bioremediation. In: Singh JS, Seneviratne G, agro-environmental sustainability. Cham: Springer; 2017 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49727-3_2

[101] Tan JN, Ratra K, Singer SW, Simmons BA, Goswami S, Awasthi D. Methane to bioproducts: unraveling the potential of methanotrophs for biomanufacturing. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2024;90:103210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2024.103210

[102] Tapscott T, Guarnieri MT, Henard CA. Development of a CRISPR/Cas9 system for Methylococcus capsulatus in vivo gene editing. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2019, 85(11): e00340-19

[103] United Nations Environment Programme, Climate and Clean Air Coalition. Global methane assessment: benefits and costs of mitigating methane emissions. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. 2021. https://www.unep.org/resources/report/global-methane-assessment-benefits-and-costs-mitigating-methane-emissions. Accessed 30 Apr 2026.

[104] Veraart AJ, Garbeva P, van Beersum F, Ho A, Hordijk CA, Meima-Franke M, et al.. Living apart together—bacterial volatiles influence methanotrophic growth and activity. ISME J, 2018, 12(4): 1163-6

[105] Verra. (2024) Methodology development and review process, v4.4. Verified Carbon Standard. https://verra.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Methodology-Development-and-Review-Process-v4.4-FINAL-4.15.24.pdf. Accessed 30 Apr 2026.

[106] Wang Y, Wang D, Yang Q, Zeng G, Li X. Wastewater opportunities for denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation. Trends Biotechnol, 2017, 35: 799-802

[107] Wang T, Zhou Y, Luo Z, Wen H, Zhao J, Su B, et al.. Flammability limit behavior of methane with the addition of gaseous fuel at various relative humidities. Process Saf Environ Prot, 2020, 140: 178-89

[108] Wang S, Liu Q, Li J, Wang Z. Methane in wastewater treatment plants: status, characteristics, and bioconversion feasibility by methane oxidizing bacteria for high value-added chemicals production and wastewater treatment. Water Res, 2021, 198: 117122

[109] Wang T, Liang H, Luo Z, Su B, Liu L, Su Y, et al.. Near flammability limits behavior of methane-air mixtures with influence of flammable gases and nitrogen: An experimental and numerical research. Fuel, 2021, 294: 120550

[110] Whittenbury R, Phillips KC, Wilkinson JF. Enrichment, isolation and some properties of methane-utilizing bacteria. J Gen Microbiol, 1970, 61: 205-18

[111] Woolley L, Chaklader MR, Pilmer L, Stephens F, Wingate C, Salini M, et al.. Gas to protein: microbial single cell protein is an alternative to fishmeal in aquaculture. Sci Total Environ, 2023, 859: 160141

[112] Wu T, Cheng J, Wang S, He H, Chen G, Xu H, et al.. Hotspot detection and estimation of methane emissions from landfill final cover. Atmosphere, 2023, 14: 1598

[113] Xu M, Zhou H, Yang X, Angelidaki I, Zhang Y. Sulfide restrains the growth of Methylocapsa acidiphila converting renewable biogas to single cell protein. Water Res, 2020, 184: 116138

[114] Yoon S, Carey JN, Semrau JD. Feasibility of atmospheric methane removal using methanotrophic biotrickling filters. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2009, 83: 949-56

[115] Zappi A, Fortela DL, Holmes WE. An assessment of methanotrophs producing industrial-grade lipids for biofuels and other commercial chemicals. Energies, 2020, 13: 3887

[116] Zha X, Tsapekos P, Zhu X, Khoshnevisan B, Lu X, Angelidaki I. Bioconversion of wastewater to single cell protein by methanotrophic bacteria. Bioresour Technol, 2021, 320: 124351

[117] Zhang W, Ge X, Li YF, Yu Z, Li Y. Isolation of a methanotroph from a hydrogen sulfide-rich anaerobic digester for methanol production from biogas. Process Biochem, 2016, 51: 838-44

[118] Zheng X, Liu Q, Khademi S, Khoshnevisan B, Xu M, Zhang Y, et al.. Methanotroph biotransformation for nutrient recovery: a review of current strategies and future opportunities. Biofuel Res J, 2024, 11: 2065-81

[119] Zhou R, Zhu Y, Li Q, Chen R, Li YY. Environmental impacts and optimization strategies for integrating carbon capture and anammox-based processes in municipal wastewater treatment under uncertain influent parameters. Bioresour Technol, 2025, 439: 133326

Funding

National Research Foundation of Korea(RS-2024-00466474)

Rights & permissions

Jiangnan University