Sustainable valorization of corn biomass: a circular approach to bioenergy and bioproducts

Abstract

The current search for green alternatives to substitute fossil-based compounds has increased interest in renewable biomass sources. In this context, corn (Zea mays) has been extensively explored for first-generation (1G) bioethanol production. Over the past 20 years, the production of this biofuel has increased from 4.5 to 28.5 billion gallons, led mainly by the US and Brazil. The synthesis of corn-bioethanol in biorefineries is a prime example of the circular economy principles, as there is co-generation of different bioproducts: corn oil, animal feed, and CO₂. Although 1G bioethanol production from corn is well-known and has been extensively studied, its processing chain can be further explored, promoting advances in already existing biorefinery systems. Beyond animal feed and corn oil, novel biomolecules can be produced in such industrial platforms—advanced fuels, biopolymers, and enzymes, for example. Therefore, this review article aims to present and discuss up-to-date literature reports on the topic, providing insights into new technologies that could be explored in the corn biorefinery context. New advances in this field, as well as challenges and strategies to overcome them, will be described and explored.

Keywords

Biorefineries / Biomass valorization / Biofuels / Bioplastics / Maize

References

[1] Abe CAL, Faria CB, de Castro FF, et al.. Fungi isolated from maize (Zeamays L.) grains and production of associated enzyme activities. Int J Mol Sci, 2015, 16: 15328-15346.

[2] Adekunle AE, Zhang C, Guo C, et al.. Laccase production from Trametes versicolor in solid-state fermentation of steam-exploded pretreated cornstalk. Waste Biomass Valoriz, 2017, 8: 153-159.

[3] Aguieiras ECG, Greco-Duarte J, de Souza CP, et al.. Integrated process for a new sequential valorization of corn ethanol production by-products: production of fermented solid with lipase activity, ethyl esters, and animal feed. Ind Crops Prod, 2024, 209. ArticleID: 118028

[4] Ahmad N, Kamal S, Raza ZA, et al.. Corn straw lignin—a sustainable bioinspired finish for superhydrophobic and UV-protective cellulose fabric. Int J Biol Macromol, 2024, 257. ArticleID: 128393

[5] Akinbile BJ, Olatunde OC, Makgato SS, et al.. Advancing sustainability: innovative waste-to-biofuel pathways for circular economy in Africa, a review. Biomass Futures, 2026, 1. ArticleID: 100028

[6] Alavijeh RS, Shahvandi A, Okoro OV, et al.. Biorefining of corn stover for efficient production of bioethanol, biodiesel, biomethane, and value-added byproducts. Energy Convers Manag, 2023, 283. ArticleID: 116877

[7] Aliyah A, Alamsyah G, Ramadhani R, et al.. Production of α-amylase and β-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger by solid state fermentation method on biomass waste substrates from rice husk, bagasse and corn cob. Energy Proce, 2017, 136: 418-423.

[8] Alterary SS, El-Tohamy MF, Alsahli SA, et al.. Sustainable catalytic production of biodiesel from waste corn oil: efficiency evaluation. Chem Eng Technol, 2025, 48: 1-19.

[9] Amaro-Reyes A, Gracida J, Huizache-Peña N, et al.. On-site hydrolytic enzymes production from fungal co-cultivation of Bermuda grass and corn cob. Bioresour Technol, 2016, 212: 334-337.

[10] Anu KA, Rapoport A, et al.. Multifarious pretreatment strategies for the lignocellulosic substrates for the generation of renewable and sustainable biofuels: a review. Renew Energy, 2020, 160: 1228-1252.

[11] Baksi S, Saha D, Saha S, et al.. Pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass: review of various physico-chemical and biological methods influencing the extent of biomass depolymerization. Int J Environ Sci Technol, 2023, 20: 13895-13922.

[12] Balamurugan T, Arun A, Sathishkumar GB. Biodiesel derived from corn oil—a fuel substitute for diesel. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2018, 94: 772-778.

[13] Baskar G, Aiswarya R. Trends in catalytic production of biodiesel from various feedstocks. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2016, 57: 496-504.

[14] Bautista K, Unpaprom Y, Ramaraj R. Bioethanol production from corn stalk juice using Saccharomyces cerevisiae TISTR 5020. Energy Sources Part A Util Environ Eff, 2019, 41: 1615-1621

[15] Bécsy-Jakab VE, Savoy A, Saulnier BK, et al.. Extraction, recovery, and characterization of lignin from industrial corn stover lignin cake. Bioresour Technol, 2024, 399. ArticleID: 130610

[16] IEA Bioenergy. Assessment of successes and lessons learned for biofuels deployment: Status of biofuel policies and market deployment in Brazil, Canada, Germany, Sweden and the United States. Epub ahead of print 2023. https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/IEABio_LLBF_WP1report_final.pdf.

[17] European Bioplastics. Bioplastics market development update 2024. 2025; 167–186

[18] Bnamericas. Brazil’s Potencial to invest over US$360mn in corn ethanol refinery. BnAmericas 2026; 1–5.

[19] Bomgardner MM. BioAmber opens its succinic acid plant. Chemical & Engineering News 2015; 12–15.

[20] Bonini VRB, Lemos LFP, Starke AR, et al.. Analyzing the impact of an increased bioethanol share in the fuel blend for the Brazilian lightweight fleet transportation sector. Energy, 2025.

[21] Buenavista RME, Siliveru K, Zheng Y. Utilization of Distiller’s dried grains with solubles: a review. J Agric Food Res, 2021, 5: 100195

[22] Buenavista RME, Siliveru K, Zheng Y. Utilization of distiller’s dried grains with solubles: A review. J Agric Food Res, 2021. Epub ahead of print 1 September.

[23] Burli P, Hennig C, Hoefnagels R, et al. Assessment of successes and lessons learned for biofuels deployment, https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/IEA-Bioenergy-ITP-Assessment-of-successes-and-lessons-learned-for-biofuels-deployment.pdf? (2023).

[24] Chandel AK, Forte MBS, Gonçalves IS, et al.. Brazilian biorefineries from second generation biomass: critical insights from industry and future perspectives. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin, 2021, 15: 1190-1208.

[25] Chang Y, Zhao XQ, Zhang X, et al.. Corn steep liquor as an efficient bioresource for functional components production by biotransformation technology. Foods, 2025, 14: 2158.

[26] Chen S, Xu Z, Li X, et al.. Integrated bioethanol production from mixtures of corn and corn stover. Bioresour Technol, 2018, 258: 18-25.

[27] Chong TY, Law MC, Chan YS. The potentials of corn waste lignocellulosic fibre as an improved reinforced bioplastic composites. J Polym Environ, 2021, 29: 363-381.

[28] CONAB–Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento. ACOMPANHAMENTO DA SAFRA BRASILEIRA - GRÃOS Safra 2024/25. 12° Levantamento.

[29] CONAB–Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento. ACOMPANHAMENTO DA SAFRA BRASILEIRA CANA-DE-AÇÚCAR. SAFRA 2024/25. 4° Levantamento.

[30] USDA. Corn 2024 World Production. USDA Foreign agricultural service. Epub ahead of print 2025. https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/cropview/commodityView.aspx?cropid=0440000.

[31] Correia B, Matos HA, Lopes TF, et al.. Sustainability assessment of 2G bioethanol production from residual lignocellulosic biomass. Processes, 2024, 12: 987.

[32] Costantini V, Crespi F, Martini C, et al.. Demand-pull and technology-push public support for eco-innovation: the case of the biofuels sector. Res Policy, 2015, 44: 577-595.

[33] Dar A, Karla G, Santos S, et al.. Current trends of cellulosic ethanol technology from the perspective of industrial development. Fermentation, 2026, 12: 48.

[34] de Mello AFM, Vandenberghe LPdeS, Machado CMB, et al.. Polyhydroxyalkanoates production in biorefineries: a review on current status, challenges and opportunities. Bioresour Technol, 2024, 393. ArticleID: 130078

[35] Dejene BK, Geletaw TM. Development of fully green composites utilizing thermoplastic starch and cellulosic fibers from agro-waste: a critical review. Polym-Plast Technol Mater, 2024, 63: 540-569

[36] Desai DI, Iyer BD. Optimization of medium composition for cellulase-free xylanase production by solid-state fermentation on corn cob waste by Aspergillus niger DX-23. Biomass Convers Biorefin, 2022, 12: 1153-1165.

[37] Di Lena G, Ondrejíčková P, del Pulgar JS, et al.. Towards a valorization of corn bioethanol side streams: chemical characterization of post fermentation corn oil and thin stillage. Molecules, 2020, 25: 3549.

[38] Discover our cost-competitive SAF, https://gevo.com/product/saf/ (Accessed 21 Oct 2025).

[39] do Nascimento RP, Alves Junior N, Coelho RRR. Brewer’s spent grain and corn steep liquor as alternative culture medium substrates for proteinase production by Streptomyces malaysiensis AMT-3. Braz J Microbiol, 2011, 42: 1384-1389.

[40] dos Santos Aguilar JG, Sato HH. Microbial proteases: production and application in obtaining protein hydrolysates. Food Res Int, 2018, 103: 253-262.

[41] Ebadian M, van Dyk S, McMillan JD, et al.. Biofuels policies that have encouraged their production and use: an international perspective. Energy Policy, 2020, 147. ArticleID: 111906

[42] Edwinoliver NG, Thirunavukarasu K, Purushothaman S, et al.. Corn steep liquor as a nutrition adjunct for the production of Aspergillus niger lipase and hydrolysis of oils thereof. J Agric Food Chem, 2009, 57: 10658-10663.

[43] Elegbede JA, Lateef A. Valorization of corn-cob by fungal isolates for production of xylanase in submerged and solid state fermentation media and potential biotechnological applications. Waste Biomass Valoriz, 2018, 9: 1273-1287.

[44] Elsagan ZA, Ali RM, El-Naggar MA, et al.. New perspectives for maximizing sustainable bioethanol production from corn stover. Renew Energy, 2023, 209: 608-618.

[45] Enawgaw H, Tesfaye T, Yilma KT, et al.. Multiple utilization ways of corn by-products for biomaterial production with bio-refinery concept; a review. Mater Circ Econ, 2023.

[46] Absolute energy. a grain, distiller’s dried grains with solubles, corn oil, & ethanol plant. 2025; 2025.

[47] RFA. Ethanol Co-Products–Renewable Fuels Association (RFA). 2024; 1–5.

[48] Ace Ethanol. Ethanol. 2025; 5–7.

[49] Fan W, Wang A, Che X, et al.. Lipid profiles of green conversion from corn-ethanol co-product via Aspergillus niger. Bioresour Technol, 2025, 426. ArticleID: 132384

[50] Far BE, Ahmadi Y, Khosroushahi AY, et al.. Microbial alpha-amylase production: progress, challenges and perspectives. Adv Pharm Bull, 2020, 10: 350-358.

[51] Fonseca JM, Teleken JG, de Cinque Almeida V, et al.. Biodiesel from waste frying oils: methods of production and purification. Energy Convers Manag, 2019, 184: 205-218.

[52] Fonseca I. Brazil’s Corn Ethanol Expansion and Environmental Strategy. The Rio Times, 2024, https://www.riotimesonline.com/brazils-inpasa-launches-worlds-largest-corn-ethanol-plant (2024).

[53] FS Fueling Sustainability. Sustainability Report 2023/2024, https://www.fs.agr.br/en/ (2024).

[54] García-Torreiro M, López-Abelairas M, Lu-Chau TA, et al.. Production of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of cereal mash using Halomonas boliviensis. Biochem Eng J, 2016, 114: 140-146.

[55] Gevo. About Gevo. Gevo 2022; 21–22.

[56] Hale RC, Seeley ME, La Guardia MJ, et al.. A global perspective on microplastics. J Geophys Res Oceans, 2020, 125: 1-40.

[57] Halimi NAN, Odunsi A, Sebastiani A, et al.. Waste to biofuel: process design and optimisation for sustainable aviation fuel production from corn stover. Energies, 2025, 18: 3418.

[58] Hassan PM, Muk CH. A comprehensive review of the evolution of biodiesel production technologies. Energy Convers Manage, 2025.

[59] Hassan SS, Williams GA, Jaiswal AK. Lignocellulosic biorefineries in Europe: current state and prospects. Trends Biotechnol, 2019, 37: 231-234.

[60] He D, Chen X, Lu M, et al.. High-solids saccharification and fermentation of ball-milled corn stover enabling high titer bioethanol production. Renew Energy, 2023, 202: 336-346.

[61] História - FS, https://www.fs.agr.br/sobre-a-fs/historia/ (Accessed 21 Oct 2025).

[62] Huda MS, Nahar N. Oil recovery from dry grind ethanol plant coproducts using ethanol. Processes, 2021, 9: 2282.

[63] Ibrahim MIJ, Sapuan SM, Zainudin ES, et al.. Preparation and characterization of cornhusk/sugar palm fiber reinforced cornstarch-based hybrid composites. J Mater Res Technol, 2020, 9: 200-211.

[64] Iram A, Cekmecelioglu D, Demirci A. Integrating 1G with 2G bioethanol production by using distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS) as the feedstock for Lignocellulolytic enzyme production. Fermentation, 2022, 8: 705.

[65] Ire FS, Chima IJ, Ezebuiro V. Enhanced xylanase production from UV-mutated Aspergillus niger grown on corn cob and sawdust. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol, 2021.

[66] Isaac GS, Abu-Tahon MA. Enhanced alkaline cellulases production by the thermohalophilic Aspergillus terreus AUMC 10138 mutated by physical and chemical mutagens using corn stover as substrate. Braz J Microbiol, 2015, 46: 1269-1277.

[67] Ismail SA, Nour SA, Hassan AA. Valorization of corn cobs for xylanase production by Aspergillus flavus AW1 and its application in the production of antioxidant oligosaccharides and removal of food stain. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol, 2022, 41. ArticleID: 102311

[68] Jain D, Katyal P. Optimization of gluco-amylase production from Aspergillus spp. for its use in saccharification of liquefied corn starch. 3 Biotech, 2018, 8. ArticleID: 101

[69] Jain S, Kumar S. A comprehensive review of bioethanol production from diverse feedstocks: current advancements and economic perspectives. Energy, 2024.

[70] Jem KJ, Tan B. The development and challenges of poly (lactic acid) and poly (glycolic acid). Adv Ind Eng Polym Res, 2020, 3: 60-70

[71] Jia J, Yang X, Wu Z, et al.. Optimization of fermentation medium for extracellular lipase production from Aspergillus niger using response surface methodology. Biomed Res Int, 2015, 2015. ArticleID: 497462

[72] Jiao Y, Chen HD, Han H, et al.. Development and utilization of corn processing by-products: a review2022Foods,

[73] Jumaidin R, Mohd Zainel SN, Sapuan SM. Processing of thermoplastic starch. Elsevier Inc. Epub ahead of print 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819661-8.00002-0.

[74] Kandasamy S, Muthusamy G, Balakrishnan S, et al.. Optimization of protease production from surface-modified coffee pulp waste and corncobs using Bacillus sp. by SSF. 3 Biotech, 2016, 6: 1-11.

[75] Kant G, Hasan A, Yadav P, et al.. The generational shift in biofuels: a path toward sustainable energy solutions. Biomass Bioenergy, 2025.

[76] Karp SG, Medina JDC, Letti LAJ, et al.. Bioeconomy and biofuels: the case of sugarcane ethanol in Brazil. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin, 2021, 15: 899-912.

[77] Kaur G, Sethi M, Devi V, et al.. Investigating maize as a sustainable energy crop for bioethanol production: delineating cultivation, utilization, biotechnological and environmental perspectives. Biomass Bioenergy, 2025.

[78] Koutinas AA, Vlysidis A, Pleissner D, et al.. Valorization of industrial waste and by-product streams via fermentation for the production of chemicals and biopolymers. Chem Soc Rev, 2014, 43: 2587-2627.

[79] LanzaJet | What is sustainable aviation fuel and why SAF matters, https://www.lanzajet.com/news-insights/what-is-saf (Accessed 21 Oct 2025).

[80] Lee CY. US20150164114A1: Methods for producing a high protein corn meal from a whole stillage byproduct and system therefore. 2015.

[81] Lee U, Kwon H, Wu M, et al.. Retrospective analysis of the US corn ethanol industry for 2005–2019: implications for greenhouse gas emission reductions. Biofuels Bioproducts Biorefining, 2021, 15: 1318-1331.

[82] Liu CM, Wachemo AC, Tong H, et al.. Biogas production and microbial community properties during anaerobic digestion of corn stover at different temperatures. Bioresour Technol, 2018, 261: 93-103.

[83] Long C, Liu J, Gan L, et al.. Optimization of xylanase production by Trichoderma orientalis using corn cobs and wheat bran via statistical strategy. Waste Biomass Valoriz, 2019, 10: 1277-1284.

[84] Ma K, Ruan Z. Production of a lignocellulolytic enzyme system for simultaneous bio-delignification and saccharification of corn stover employing co-culture of fungi. Bioresour Technol, 2015, 175: 586-593.

[85] Machado CMB, Vandenberghe LPdeS, de Mello AFM, et al.. Corn or soybean oil as the sole carbon source for polyhydroxybutyrate production in a biofuel biorefinery concept. Polymers (Basel), 2025.

[86] Maitra S, Singh V. Invited review on ‘maize in the 21st century’ emerging trends of maize biorefineries in the 21st century: scientific and technological advancements in biofuel and bio-sustainable market. J Cereal Sci, 2021, 101. ArticleID: 103272

[87] Maldonado RR, Aguiar-Oliveira E, Pozza EL, et al.. Production of lipase from Geotrichum candidum using corn steep liquor in different bioreactors. J Am Oil Chem Soc, 2014, 91: 1999-2009.

[88] Maldonadoa R, Pancieraa L, Macedob A, et al.. Improvement of lipase production from Geotrichum sp. in shaken flasks. Chem Ind Chem Eng Quart, 2012, 18: 459-464.

[89] Malik MI, Li J, Capucchio MT, et al.. Effects of distiller’s dried grains with solubles on enteric methane emissions in dairy and beef cattle: a meta-analysis. Front Vet Sci, 2024, 11: 1-14.

[90] Manandhar A, Shah A. Techno-economic analysis of bio-based Lactic Acid production utilizing corn grain as feedstock. Processes, 2020, 8: 199.

[91] Mandaokar A. Biorefinery market, https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/biorefinery.asp (2025).

[92] MarketsandMarkets. Biorefinery market size, share, growth, Analysis, https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/biorefinery-market-108797809.html (2025).

[93] Mata TM, Sousa IRBG, Vieira SS, Caetano NS. Transgenic corn oil for biodiesel production via enzymatic catalysis with ethanol. Chem Eng Trans 2012;27:19–24. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef300319f

[94] Matos JS, Justi ACA, Souza RF, et al.. Building and evaluating prospective scenarios for corn-based biorefineries. Discov Chem Eng, 2023. Epub ahead of print.

[95] Mohammadi Shad Z, Venkitasamy C, Wen Z. Corn distillers dried grains with solubles: production, properties, and potential uses. Cereal Chem, 2021, 98: 999-1019.

[96] Mujtaba M, Fernandes Fraceto L, Fazeli M, et al.. Lignocellulosic biomass from agricultural waste to the circular economy: a review with focus on biofuels, biocomposites and bioplastics. J Clean Prod, 2023, 402. ArticleID: 136815

[97] Murawski de Mello AF, Porto de Souza Vandenberghe L, Valladares-Diestra KK, et al. Corn first-generation bioethanol unities with energy and dried grains with solubles (DDGS) Production. 2022. Epub ahead of print 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-01241-9_6.

[98] Nasr N, Gupta M, Elbeshbishy E, et al.. Biohydrogen production from pretreated corn cobs. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2014, 39: 19921-19927.

[99] Natureworks LLC. Sustainable, Renewable Feedstocks for Biopolymers. Natureworks 2023; 1–6.

[100] Natureworks. NatureWorks announces key milestones for global manufacturing expansion with new 75kTa facility for producing Ingeo biopolymer in Thailand. Natureworks 2021; 2021: 1–2.

[101] NatureWorks. Ingeo Technology, https://www.natureworksllc.com/technology-and-products/ingeo-technology (Accessed 9 Jun 2025).

[102] Neeley T. ADM Enters Sustainable Aviation Fuel. Progressive Farmer 2021; 10–11.

[103] Obi CN, Okezie O, Ezugwu AN. Amylase production by solid state fermentation of agro-industrial wastes using bacillus species. Eur J Nutr Food Saf, 2019, 9(4): 408-414.

[104] Olajuyigbe FM, Ogunyewo OA. Enhanced production and physicochemical properties of thermostable crude cellulase from Sporothrix carnis grown on corn cob. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol, 2016, 7: 110-117.

[105] Padder SA, Khan R, Rather RA. Biofuel generations: new insights into challenges and opportunities in their microbe-derived industrial production. Biomass Bioenergy, 2024.

[106] PannoniaBio. Grain biorefinery. Pannonia Bio Zrt. 2025; 1–13.

[107] Peng Y, Wang M, Zheng Z, et al.. Optimization of solid-state fermented corn distillers dried grains with solubles: effects on growth performance and tissue morphology in broiler chickens. Front Anim Sci, 2024, 5: 1-19.

[108] Pippo WA, Alves A. Corn ethanol in Brazil: Analyzing the prospect of becoming a widespread practice in South America. Sugar Tech, 2022. Epub ahead of print.

[109] Putra IGEP, Ulfah M, Nurhayati N, et al.. Coproduction of alkaline protease and xylanase from genetically modified Indonesian local Bacillus halodurans CM1 using corncob as an inducing substrate. Saudi J Biol Sci, 2024, 31. ArticleID: 103947

[110] Qiao J, Cui H, Wang M, et al.. Integrated biorefinery approaches for the industrialization of cellulosic ethanol fuel. Bioresour Technol, 2022, 360. ArticleID: 127516

[111] Ramos PR, de Oliveira AL, Ramos GVC, et al.. Esterification process in supercritical carbon dioxide catalyzed by geotrichum candidum lipase produced with mozzarella cheese whey and corn steep liquor. Processes, 2024, 12: 2086.

[112] Ramos Neyra LC, Porto de Souza Vandenberghe L, Valladares-Diestra KK, et al.. Emerging biorefinery approaches to produce microbial amylases and their formulations and applications in the food industry. Waste Biomass Valoriz, 2025.

[113] Ramos Neyra LC, Porto de Souza Vandenberghe L, Amaro Bittencourt G, et al.. Vandenberghe LPdeS, Brar SK, Srivastava V, et al.. Amylases in the bioethanol process: from enzyme biosynthesis to starch hydrolysis. Enzymes applied in biofuels production: new technologies and innovation, 2025. Cham, Springer: 17-42

[114] Rashwan AK, Younis HA, Abdelshafy AM, et al.. Plant starch extraction, modification, and green applications: a review. Environ Chem Lett, 2024.

[115] Raza ZA, Abid S, Banat IM. Polyhydroxyalkanoates: characteristics, production, recent developments and applications. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation, 2018, 126: 45-56.

[116] Real LEP. Plastics statistics: production, recycling, and market data. Recycled materials for construction applications, 2023. Cham, Springer International Publishing: 103-113.

[117] Rech H, Zem Fraga A, Haubert Franceschi C, et al.. Variability in Distillers’ co-product compositions and their nutritional availability for pigs: insights from a systematic literature review. Animals Basel, 2024, 14. ArticleID: 3455

[118] Renewable Fuels Association. Ethanol around the world. Global Ethanol Industry Outlook, 2024, 2024: 6-7

[119] Research PSMM. Biorefinery market, https://www.psmarketresearch.com/market-analysis/biorefinery-market (2023).

[120] RF. 2024 U.S. Ethanol exports smash record, DDGS second-highest ever. Media & News 2025; 2–5.

[121] RFA. Annual Ethanol Production–Renewable Fuels Association (RFA), https://ethanolrfa.org/markets-and-statistics/annual-ethanol-production (2024).

[122] Rosenboom JG, Langer R, Traverso G. Bioplastics for a circular economy. Nat Rev Mater, 2022, 7: 117-137.

[123] Ryan C. An overview of Gevo’s biobased isobutanol production process the isobutanol-ethanol side-by-side dry-mill production process is a scalable pathway to a variety of renewable biofuels and chemicals and their markets. ISOBUTANOL PRODUCTION PROCESS 1, https://gevo.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Gevo-Whitepaper-Overview-of-Gevos-Biobased-Isobutanol-Production-Process.pdf (2021).

[124] Saxena A, Parveen F, Hussain A, et al.. Second-generation biorefineries: single platform for the conversion of lignocellulosic wastes to environmentally important biofuels. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2024, 31: 62623-62654.

[125] Shen L, Su Y, Sun Y, et al.. Establishment of a highly efficient and low cost mixed cellulase system for bioconversion of corn stover by Trichoderma reesei and Aspergillus niger. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol, 2021, 32. ArticleID: 101849

[126] Shibukawa VP, Reis CER, dos Santos JC, et al.. Utilization of co-products from corn ethanol industry in a biorefinery context: a review on the biotechnological potential of thin stillage. Braz J Chem Eng, 2023, 41: 1091-1107.

[127] Song Q, Deng X, Song RQ. Expression of Pleurotus Ostreatus laccase gene in Pichia pastoris and its degradation of corn Stover lignin. Microorganisms, 2020, 8: 601.

[128] Sumardiono S, Hawali Abdul Matin H, Ivan Hartono I, et al. Biogas production from corn stalk as agricultural waste containing high cellulose material by anaerobic process. In: Materials Today: Proceedings. Elsevier Ltd, 2022, pp. S477–S483.

[129] Sun S, Zhang L, Meng X, et al.. Biodiesel production by transesterification of corn oil with dimethyl carbonate under heterogeneous base catalysis conditions using potassium hydroxide. Chem Technol Fuels Oils, 2014, 50: 99-107.

[130] Sun B, Zou K, Zhao Y, et al.. The fermentation optimization for alkaline protease production by Bacillus subtilis BS-QR-052. Front Microbiol, 2023, 14. ArticleID: 1301065

[131] Sun D, Wu H, Yang Z, et al.. Green oxidation of corn stover lignin as reinforcing plasticizer and UV-blocking agent for Polyvinyl alcohol composites: process optimization and techno-economic analysis. Bioresour Technol, 2026, 439. ArticleID: 133354

[132] Suresh G, Ragunathan R, Johney J. Assessing the impact of corn steep liquor as an inducer on enhancing laccase production and laccase gene (Lac1) transcription in Pleurotus pulmonarius during solid-state fermentation. Bioresour Technol Rep, 2024, 27. ArticleID: 101905

[133] Susmozas A, Martín-Sampedro R, Ibarra D, et al.. Process strategies for the transition of 1G to advanced bioethanol production. Processes, 2020, 8: 1-45.

[134] Susmozas A, Matschegg D, Davidis B, et al.. Economic and environmental assessment of the retrofitting of a first-generation ethanol plant. Biomass Convers Biorefin, 2025, 15: 8997-9010.

[135] Tan GYA, Chen CL, Li L, et al.. Start a research on biopolymer polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): a review. Polymers (Basel), 2014, 6: 706-754.

[136] Tanzil AH, Zhang X, Wolcott M, et al.. Evaluation of dry corn ethanol bio-refinery concepts for the production of sustainable aviation fuel. Biomass Bioenergy, 2021, 146. ArticleID: 105937

[137] Toivanen H, Novotny M. Moving towards the second generation of lignocellulosic biorefineries in the EU: drivers, challenges, and opportunities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2019, 101: 590-599.

[138] Ubando AT, Felix CB, Chen W-H. Biorefineries in circular bioeconomy: a comprehensive review. Bioresour Technol, 2020, 299. ArticleID: 122585

[139] Uddin MM, Lee U, Xu H, et al.. Sustainable aviation fuel from ethanol: techno-economic analysis and life cycle analysis. Appl Energy, 2025, 398. ArticleID: 126373

[140] Vázquez-López M, Moreno-Andrade I. Biohydrogen production by co-digestion of food waste and corn industry wastewater. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2025, 108: 113-120.

[141] Veljković VB, Biberdžić MO, Banković-Ilić IB, et al.. Biodiesel production from corn oil: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2018, 91: 531-548.

[142] Ventura JRS, Ventura RLG. Techno-economic feasibility of Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) production from corn stover. Philipp Agric Sci, 2024, 107: 55-69

[143] Venturin B, Frumi Camargo A, Scapini T, et al.. Effect of pretreatments on corn stalk chemical properties for biogas production purposes. Bioresour Technol, 2018, 266: 116-124.

[144] Vijayan SK, Naveena Victor M, Sudharsanam A, et al.. Winterization studies of different vegetable oil biodiesel. Bioresour Technol Rep, 2018, 1: 50-55.

[145] Walendorff R. Grupo Potencial to build corn ethanol plant in southern Brazil. Agribusiness 2025; 5–9.

[146] Wang F, Hu JH, Guo C, et al.. Enhanced laccase production by Trametes versicolor using corn steep liquor as both nitrogen source and inducer. Bioresour Technol, 2014, 166: 602-605.

[147] Wang S, Yu Y, Di M. Green modification of corn stalk lignin and preparation of environmentally friendly lignin-based wood adhesive. Polymers, 2018, 10: 631.

[148] Wang C, Huang X, Liu X, et al.. Strategies for efficient utilization of Corn Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles in diets of pigs: a review. Animals, 2025, 15. ArticleID: 1727

[149] Xiang Y, Chen X, Sun H, et al.. The critical roles of α-amylase and amyloglucosidase in improving the quality of black waxy corn beverages: special attentions to the color and flavor. J Cereal Sci, 2023, 110. ArticleID: 103625

[150] Yaduvanshi A. Biorefinery market size & outlook, 2025–2033 biorefinery market size and growth biorefinery market growth factors, https://straitsresearch.com/report/biorefinery-market (2025).

[151] Zhang K, Xu R, Abomohra AEF, et al.. A sustainable approach for efficient conversion of lignin into biodiesel accompanied by biological pretreatment of corn straw. Energy Convers Manag, 2019, 199. ArticleID: 111928

[152] Zhang Y, Hu J, Zhang Q, et al.. Enhancement of alkaline protease production in recombinant Bacillus licheniformis by response surface methodology. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2023, 10: 1-11.

[153] Zhu Q, Gao D, Yan D, et al.. Highly efficient one-pot bioethanol production from corn stalk with biocompatible ionic liquids. Bioresour Technol Rep, 2023, 22. ArticleID: 101461

[154] Zwiercheczewski de Oliveira P, Porto de Souza Vandenberghe L, de Mello AFM, et al.. A concise update on major poly-lactic acid bioprocessing barriers. Bioresour Technol Rep, 2022.

Funding

Universidade Federal Do Paraná

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)