Constructed wetlands with mining pond integration and paddy field geometry: A regional sewage treatment plant case study

Abstract

Discharge from sewage treatment plants can deteriorate river water quality due to improper management or insufficient levels of treatment. To address these challenges, constructed wetland systems (CWSs) have been widely used as a sustainable and effective solution for wastewater management. This study provides an overview of the conceptual design for a CWS to treat the discharge from the Papan Regional Sewage Treatment Plant (RSTP). The design influent for the CWS was determined, and the proposed sizing was based on simulation results to achieve the targeted concentrations consistent with Water Quality Index (WQI) Class II. The MUSIC-X software was used in this study to simulate pollutant removal performance, hydraulic behavior, and effluent quality under various flow conditions. The model was set up using site-specific inflow parameters, targeted effluent concentrations, and wetland configuration inputs, including surface area, depth, vegetation zones, and retention times. This study introduces an innovative approach by adopting the paddy field concept as the geometrical design of a multi-cell CWS, covering a total surface area of 1,250,000 m² and divided into two sections (Wetland 1 and Wetland 2), with different planting plots separated by a gabion wall. The innovation lies in reimagining abandoned mining ponds as functional wetland zones, while using a paddy field-inspired grid layout to enhance hydraulic control, pollutant removal, and land efficiency. This approach transforms degraded land into an eco-engineered, cost-effective, and scalable wastewater treatment system—a novel model for tropical developing regions.

Keywords

constructed wetland / secondary treatment / sewage treatment plant discharge / wastewater treatment / Water Quality Index

References

[1] Abd Rasid, N. S., Naim, M. N., Che Man, H., Abu Bakar, N. F., & Mokhtar, M. N. (2019). Evaluation of surface water treated with lotus plant; Nelumbo nucifera. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 7(3), 103048.

[2] Almuktar, S. A. A. A. N., Abed, S. N., & Scholz, M. (2018). Wetlands for wastewater treatment and subsequent recycling of treated effluent: A review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 23595-23623.

[3] Alves Sanchez, A., Carolina Ferreira, A., Martins Stopa, J., Cardoso Bellato, F., Araújo de Jesus, T., Helena Gomes Coelho, L., Domingues, M. R., Lucas Subtil, E., Roberto Matheus, D., & Frederigi Benassi, R. (2018). Organic matter, turbidity, and apparent color removal in planted (Typha sp. and Eleocharis sp.) and unplanted constructed wetlands. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 144(10), 06018007.

[4] Angassa, K., Leta, S., Mulat, W., Kloos, H., & Meers, E. (2019). Effect of hydraulic loading on bioremediation of municipal wastewater using constructed wetland planted with vetiver grass, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Nanotechnology for Environmental Engineering, 4(1), 6.

[5] Davis, L., Service, U. S. N. R. C. III, U. S. E. P. A. R. & Resources, P. D. of E. (1995). A Handbook of constructed wetlands: General considerations. U.S. Government Printing Office. https://books.google.com.my/books?id=iL3LrQEACAAJ

[6] Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE). (2020). Environment Quality Report 2020 - Chapter 2: River Water Quality, 38–72. Available at: https://enviro2.doe.gov.my/ekmc/digital-content/laporan-kualiti-alam-sekeliling-environmental-quality-report-2020/.

[7] Gaballah, M. S., Abdelwahab, O., Barakat, K. M., & Aboagye, D. (2020). A novel horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland planted with Typha angustifolia for treatment of polluted water. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(22), 28449-28462.

[8] Li, L., Zhang, Z., Shen, Y., He, B., Fu, Y., Kou, S., & Gao, J. (2024). Optimized design of modular constructed wetland for treating rural black–odorous water. Water, 16(17), 2492.

[9] Mohiyaden, H. A., Sidek, L. M., Salih, G. H. A., Birima, A. H., Basri, H., Sabri, A. F. M., & Noh, N. (2016). Conventional methods and emerging technologies for urban river water purification plant: A short review. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 11(4), 2547-2556.

[10] Nuamah, L. A., Li, Y., Pu, Y., Nwankwegu, A. S., Haikuo, Z., Norgbey, E., Banahene, P., & Bofah-Buoh, R. (2020). Constructed wetlands, status, progress, and challenges. The need for critical operational reassessment for a cleaner productive ecosystem. Journal of Cleaner Production, 269, 122340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122340

[11] Nugraha, W. D., Sarminingsih, A., & Alfisya, B. (2020). The study of self purification capacity based on biological oxygen demand (BOD) and dissolved oxygen (DO) parameters. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 448(1), 012105. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/448/1/012105

[12] Nur Emylia, J., Chang, C. K., Marfiah, A. W., Aminnudin, A. G., & Suhaimi, A. T., (2015). Water quality level in stormwater runoff through constructed wetland under tropical climate. E-Proceedings of the 36th IAHR World Congress, 28 June–3 July, 2015, The Hague, the Netherlands.

[13] Parde, D., Patwa, A., Shukla, A., Vijay, R., Killedar, D. J., & Kumar, R. (2021). A review of constructed wetland on type, treatment and technology of wastewater. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 21, 101261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.101261

[14] Pincam, T., Brix, H., & Jampeetong, A. (2020). Growth performance of tropical wetland species (Cyperus involucratus Rottb. and Thalia geniculata L.) in anaerobic digester effluent and their water treatment efficiency. Ecological Engineering, 143, 105667.

[15] Quan, L. M., Warmadewanthi, I., & Helmut, Y. (2022). Current state and the application of energy conversion of sewage sludge treatment in Malaysia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1091(1), 012060. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1091/1/012060

[16] Rahman, M. E., Bin Halmi, M. I. E., Bin Abd Samad, M. Y., Uddin, M. K., Mahmud, K., Abd Shukor, M. Y., Sheikh Abdullah, S. R., & Shamsuzzaman, S. M. (2020). Design, operation and optimization of constructed wetland for removal of pollutant. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 8339. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228339

[17] Ramkumar, D., Jothiprakash, V., & Patil, B. N. (2022). Performance assessment of sewage treatment plants using compliance index. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(6), 485-497.

[18] Sabeen, A. H., Ngadi, N., Noor, Z. Z., Raheem, A. B., Agouillal, F., Mohammed, A. A., & Abdulkarim, B. I. (2018). Characteristics of the effluent wastewater in sewage treatment plants of Malaysian urban areas. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 63, 691-696. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1863116

[19] Sany, S. B. T., Tajfard, M., Rezayi, M., Rahman, M. A., & Hashim, R. (2019). The West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. In World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (pp. 437-458). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-100853-9.00050-6

[20] Sayanthan, S., Abu Hasan, H., Buhari, J., & Sheikh Abdullah, S. R. (2024). Treatment of domestic wastewater using free floating constructed wetlands assisted by Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia Stratiotes. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 25(8), 237-252.

[21] Shaharuddin, S., Chan, N. W., Zakaria, N. A., Ghani, A. A., Chang, C. K., & Roy, R. (2014). Constructed wetlands as a natural resource for water quality improvement in Malaysia. Natural Resources, 5(7), 292-298. https://doi.org/10.4236/nr.2014.57027

[22] Toet, S., Logtestijn, R. S. P., Kampf, R., Schreijer, M., & Verhoeven, J. T. A. (2005). The effect of hydraulic retention time on the removal of pollutants from sewage treatment plant effluent in a surface-flow wetland system. Wetlands, 25, 375-391.

[23] Tran, H. D., Vi, H. M. T., Dang, H. T. T., & Narbaitz, R. M. (2019). Pollutant removal by canna generalis in tropical constructed wetlands for domestic wastewater treatment. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 5(3), 331-344.

[24] Wilhelm, F. M. (2009). Pollution of aquatic ecosystems I. In Encyclopedia of Inland Waters (pp. 110-119). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012370626-3.00222-2

[25] Wu, H., Zhang, J., Ngo, H. H., Guo, W., Hu, Z., Liang, S., Fan, J., & Liu, H. (2015). A review on the sustainability of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: Design and operation. Bioresource Technology, 175, 594-601.

[26] Yusoff, F. M., Shariff, M., & Gopinath, N. (2006). Diversity of Malaysian aquatic ecosystem and resources. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 9(2), 119-135.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). River published by Wiley-VCH GmbH on behalf of China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR).