Shear strength characteristics of mixing slag-stone ballast reinforcement with tire geo-scrap using large-scale direct shear tests

Abstract

Utilizing the ballast layer with more durable and stable characteristics can help avoid significant expenses due to decreased maintenance efforts. Strengthening the ballast layer with different types of reinforcements or substituting the stone aggregates with the appropriate granular materials could potentially help to achieve this goal by reducing the ballast deterioration. One of the exquisite and most effective solutions to eliminate these challenges is to use waste materials such as steel slag aggregates and useless tires. Utilizing these waste materials in the ballasted railway track will contribute to sustainable development, an eco-friendly system, and green infrastructure. So in a state-of-the-art insightful, the ballast aggregates, including a mixture of steel slag and stone aggregates, are reinforced with a novel kind of geo-grid made of waste tire strips known as geo-scraps. This laboratory research tried to explain the shear strength behavior of the introduced mixing slag-stone ballast reinforced with tire geo-scrap. To achieve this goal, a series of large-scale direct shear tests were performed on the ballast which is reinforced by tire geo-scrap and included various combinations of slag and stone aggregates. The concluded results indicate that the optimal mixing ratio is attained by a combination of 75% slag and 25% stone aggregates which is reinforced by tire geo-scrap at a placing level of 120 mm. In this case, the shear strength‌, internal friction angle, vertical displacement, and dilatancy angle of stone–slag ballast reinforced with geo-scraps exhibited average changes of + 28%, + 9%, − 28%, and − 15%, respectively.

References

[1.] Sol-Sánchez M, D’Angelo G. Review of the design and maintenance technologies used to decelerate the deterioration of ballasted railway tracks. Constr Build Mater, 2017, 157: 402-415

[2.] Esmaeili M, Yousefian K, Nouri R. Vertical load distribution in ballasted railway tracks with steel slag and limestone ballasts. Int J Pavement Eng, 2019, 20(9): 1065-1072

[3.] Jing G, Wang J, Wang H, et al.. Numerical investigation of the behavior of stone ballast mixed by steel slag in ballasted railway track. Constr Build Mater, 2020, 262: 120015

[4.] Wang L, Li J, Tao Y, et al.. Compressive characteristics of geogrid-reinforced steel slag. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci, 2019, 304(4): 042002

[5.] Indraratna B, Qi Y, Heitor A. Evaluating the properties of mixtures of steel furnace slag, coal wash, and rubber crumbs used as subballast. J Mater Civ Eng, 2018, 30(1): 04017251

[6.] Qi Y, Indraratna B. Energy-based approach to assess the performance of a granular matrix consisting of recycled rubber, steel-furnace slag, and coal wash. J Mater Civ Eng, 2020, 32(7): 04020169

[7.] Esmaeili M, Heydari-Noghabi H, Sayadi A. Field investigation on the lateral resistance of railway tracks including hot mix asphalt layer. Road Mater Pavement Des, 2018, 19(1): 154-166

[8.] Heydari-Noghabi H, Zakeri J, Esmaeili M, et al.. Field study using additional rails and an approach slab as a transition zone from slab track to the ballasted track. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2018, 232(4): 970-978

[9.] Chen C, McDowell GR, Thom NH. Investigating geogrid-reinforced ballast: experimental pull-out tests and discrete element modelling. Soils Found, 2014, 54(1): 1-11

[10.] Ali Zakeri J, Esmaeili M, Heydari-Noghabi H. A field investigation into the effect of under sleeper pads on the reduction of railway-induced ground-borne vibrations. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2016, 230(3): 999-1005

[11.] Indraratna B, Ngo NT, Rujikiatkamjorn C. Behavior of geogrid-reinforced ballast under various levels of fouling. Geotext Geomembr, 2011, 29(3): 313-322

[12.] Nimbalkar S, Indraratna B. Improved performance of ballasted rail track using geosynthetics and rubber shockmat. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng, 2016, 142(8): 04016031

[13.] Guo Y, Markine V, Qiang W, et al.. Effects of crumb rubber size and percentage on degradation reduction of railway ballast. Constr Build Mater, 2019, 212: 210-224

[14.] Esmaeili M, Siahkouhi M. Tire-derived aggregate layer performance in railway bridges as a novel impact absorber: numerical and field study. Struct Control Health Monit, 2019, 26(10): e2444

[15.] Esmaeili M, Ali Zakeri J, Ebrahimi H, et al.. Experimental study on dynamic properties of railway ballast mixed with tire derived aggregate by modal shaker test. Adv Mech Eng, 2016, 8(5): 168781401664024

[16.] Ngo T, Indraratna B, Coop M, et al.. Influence of recycled rubber mat on the behaviour of ballast under impact loading: experimental and numerical modelling. Géotechnique, 2023

[17.] Indraratna B, Qi Y, Malisetty RS, et al.. Recycled materials in railroad substructure: an energy perspective. Railw Eng Sci, 2022, 30(3): 304-322

[18.] Qi Y, Indraratna B, Ngo T, et al.. Sustainable solutions for railway using recycled rubber. Transp Geotech, 2024, 46: 101256

[19.] Heydari H, Zakeri JA, Taghipour A. Investigating the wheel–rail dynamic response of transition system of concrete slab and ballasted tracks through train–track interaction model. Innov Infrastruct Solut, 2024, 9(7): 240

[20.] Esmaeili M, Heydari-Noghabi H, Kamali M. Numerical investigation of railway transition zones stiffened with auxiliary rails. Proc Inst Civ Eng Transp, 2020, 173(5): 299-308

[21.] Heydari-Noghabi H, Varandas JN, Ali Zakeri J, et al.. Performance evaluation of a combined transition system in slab-ballasted railway track using a vehicle–track–substructure interaction model. KSCE J Civ Eng, 2023, 27(9): 3848-3860

[22.] Koh T, Moon SW, Jung H, et al. , et al.. A feasibility study on the application of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steel slag for railway ballast material. Sustainability, 2018, 10(2): 284

[23.] Kumar A. Utilisation of wastes from integrated steel plant with special reference to India. Int J Eng Res & Technol (IJERT), 2014, 3(1): 47-52

[24] Jing G, Aela P, Zhou Q et al (2022) Steel slag aggregate characteristics evaluation as railway ballast. Advances in Transportation Geotechnics IV. Springer, Cham

[25.] Guo Y, Xie J, Fan Z, et al.. Railway ballast material selection and evaluation: a review. Constr Build Mater, 2022, 344: 128218

[26.] Heydari H. Evaluating the dynamic behavior of railway–bridge transition zone: numerical and field measurements. Can J Civ Eng, 2024, 51(4): 399-408

[27.] Fischer S. Geogrid reinforcement of ballasted railway superstructure for stabilization of the railway track geometry—a case study. Geotext Geomembr, 2022, 50(5): 1036-1051

[28] Liu C, Ngo NT, Indraratna B (2019) Improved performance of railroad ballast using geogrids. Geotechnics for transportation infrastructure. Springer, Singapore

[29.] Dehghani M, Kalantari B. Lajevardi SH (2019) Evaluation of the performance of Geo Scrap Tire reinforcement with horizontal transverse members by large-scale pullout test. Amirkabir J Civil Eng, 2021, 53(4): 1459-1478

[30.] Tajabadipour M, Esmaeili M, Askari A. Experimental evaluation of cyclic performance of steel slag and grids of truck scrap tire as a novel reinforced ballast material. Constr Build Mater, 2024, 411: 134472

[31.] Esmaeili M, Heydari H, Darvishi S et al (2024) Investigating effects of tire geo-scrap reinforcement on shear strength characteristics of railway ballast using large-scale direct shear test. Int J Rail Transp:1–22, https://doi.org/10.1080/23248378.2023.2301591

[32.] American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (2004) Manual for railway engineering. Maryland

[33.] Esmaeili M, Askari A. Laboratory investigation of the cyclic behavior of rock ballast mixed with slag ballast for use in railway tracks. Constr Build Mater, 2023, 365: 130136

[34] ASTM International (2017) ASTM C29/C29M-97, Standard test method for bulk density (“unit weight”) and voids in aggregate. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, West Conshohocken

[35.] ASTM International (2016) ASTM C535. Standard test method for resistance to degradation of large-size coarse aggregate by abrasion and impact in the Los Angeles machine. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, West Conshohocken,

[36.] ASTM International (2007) ASTM C127, Standard test method for density, relative density (specific gravity), and absorption of coarse aggregate. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, West Conshohocken

[37.] Indraratna B, Ngo NT, Rujikiatkamjorn C. Improved performance of ballasted rail tracks using plastics and rubber inclusions. Procedia Eng, 2017, 189: 207-214

[38.] Heydari-Noghabi H, Varandas JN, Esmaeili M, et al.. Investigating the influence of auxiliary rails on dynamic behavior of railway transition zone by a 3D train-track interaction model. Lat Am J Solids Struct, 2017, 14(11): 2000-2018

[39.] Zhao C, Ping W. Effect of elastic rubber mats on the reduction of vibration and noise in high-speed elevated railway systems. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2018, 232(6): 1837-1851

[40.] Fathali M, Nejad FM, Esmaeili M. Influence of tire-derived aggregates on the properties of railway ballast material. J Mater Civ Eng, 2017, 29(1): 04016177

[41.] Heydari H, Zakeri J, Esmaeili M. Evaluating the elastic sleeper efficiency in reduction of railway ground vibrations by in situ impact-response test. Int J Veh Noise Vib, 2021, 17(3–4): 237

[42.] Esmaeili M, Noghabi HH. Investigating seismic behavior of ballasted railway track in earthquake excitation using finite-element model in three-dimensional space. J Transp Eng, 2013, 139(7): 697-708

[43.] Qiang W, Jing G, Connolly DP, et al.. The use of recycled rubber in ballasted railway tracks: a review. J Clean Prod, 2023, 420: 138339

[44.] ASTM International (2016) ASTM D412, Standard test methods for vulcanized rubber and thermoplastic elastomers-tension. Annual book of ASTM standards, West Conshohocken

[45.] ASTM International (2010) ASTM D792, Standard test methods for density and specific gravity (relative density) of plastics by displacement. Annual book of ASTM standards, West Conshohocken

[46.] Biabani MM, Indraratna B. An evaluation of the interface behaviour of rail subballast stabilised with geogrids and geomembranes. Geotext Geomembr, 2015, 43(3): 240-249

[47.] Ferreira FB, Pereira PM, Vieira CS, et al.. Time-dependent response of a recycled C&D material-geotextile interface under direct shear mode. Materials (Basel), 2021, 14(11): 3070

[48.] Suhr B, Marschnig S, Six K. Comparison of two different types of railway ballast in compression and direct shear tests: experimental results and DEM model validation. Granul Matter, 2018, 20(4): 70

[49.] Rohrman AK, Ho CL. Effects of fouling containing plastic fines on abraded ballast strength and deformation properties. Transp Geotech, 2019, 21: 100278

[50.] Liu CN, Ho YH, Huang JW. Large scale direct shear tests of soil/PET-yarn geogrid interfaces. Geotext Geomembr, 2009, 27(1): 19-30

[51.] ASTM International (2011) ASTM D3080, Standard test methods for direct shear test of soils under consolidated drained conditions. Annual book of ASTM standards, West Conshohocken

[52.] Heydari H, Naseri R, Khanie N. Investigating the effect of ballast contamination in vertical and shear interlocking stiffness: experimental and numerical study. Constr Build Mater, 2024, 428: 136337

[53.] Esmaeili M, Pourrashnoo A. Experimental investigation of shear strength parameters of ballast encased with geogrid. Constr Build Mater, 2022, 335: 127491

[54.] Heydari H, Khanie N, Naseri R. Formulation and evaluation of the ballast shear interlocking coefficient based on analytical, experimental, and numerical analyses. Constr Build Mater, 2023, 406: 133457

[55.] Hussaini SKK, Sweta K. Application of geogrids in stabilizing rail track substructure. Front Built Environ, 2020, 6: 20

[56.] Sweta K, Hussaini SKK. Behavior evaluation of geogrid-reinforced ballast-subballast interface under shear condition. Geotext Geomembr, 2019, 47(1): 23-31

[57.] Indraratna B, Ngo NT, Rujikiatkamjorn C, et al.. Behavior of fresh and fouled railway ballast subjected to direct shear testing: discrete element simulation. Int J Geomech, 2014, 14(1): 34-44

[58.] Ngo NT. Improved performance of geosynthetics enhanced ballast: laboratory and numerical studies. Proc Inst Civ Eng Ground Improv, 2018, 171(4): 1-21

[59.] Ngo NT, Indraratna B, Rujikiatkamjorn C. DEM simulation of the behaviour of geogrid stabilised ballast fouled with coal. Comput Geotech, 2014, 55: 224-231

[60.] Mishra D, Naziur Mahmud SM (2017) Effect of particle size and shape characteristics on ballast shear strength: a numerical study using the direct shear test. In: 2017 Joint Rail Conference, Philadelphia, pp JRC2017–2322

[61.] Jing G, Siahkouhi M, Wang H, et al.. The improvement of the dynamic behavior of railway bridge transition zone using furnace slag reinforcement: a numerical and experimental study. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2022, 236(4): 362-374