Computational modelling of cerebrospinal fluid flow in a translational canine model

Abstract

Aim: Chiari malformation and syringomyelia are disorders of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics, yet translation of mechanistic insights into patient care is limited by the low prevalence and heterogeneity of human disease, and by methodological constraints of in-vivo CSF measurements. In Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (CKCS), these conditions are highly prevalent and represent a clinically relevant companion animal model. However, existing canine CSF flow studies rely largely on phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) metrics that incompletely characterize three-dimensional flow. This study aimed to develop a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) framework to characterise CSF flow dynamics in CKCS, providing a translational approach for investigating CSF dynamics in both veterinary and human cases.

Methods: Retrospective MRI data from nine clinically normal CKCS were used to construct subject-specific craniospinal CSF geometries. CFD simulations yielded cardiac-driven oscillatory CSF motion under physiologically plausible boundary conditions, incorporating spinal compliance and zero net flow per cardiac cycle to characterize velocities and pressures.

Results: Simulations revealed pulsatile, laminar CSF flow with pronounced regional heterogeneity, dominant subarachnoid space (SAS) transport, complex flow patterns within the cerebral aqueduct, and a cycle-dependent pressure difference between the central canal and SAS with marked sensitivity to anatomical location and downstream spinal geometry.

Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that local anatomy strongly influences measured CSF velocities, limiting the translational reliability of isolated in vivo measurements while supporting CFD as a more robust framework for clinically meaningful interpretation. Establishing these baseline craniospinal flow characteristics provides a necessary reference for interpreting clinical CSF measurements and for extending computational analyses to dogs with Chiari-like malformation and syringomyelia.

Keywords

Brachycephaly / subarachnoid space / central canal / chiari-like malformation / syringomyelia / cerebral aqueduct

References

[1] Sadler B,Strahle J.Prevalence and impact of underlying diagnosis and comorbidities on chiari 1 malformation.Pediatr Neurol2020;106:32-7

[2] Ciaramitaro P,Bertuccio A.Diagnosis and treatment of Chiari malformation and syringomyelia in adults: international consensus document.Neurol Sci2022;43:1327-42

[3] Klimov VS,Evsyukov AV.Syringosubarachnoid shunting in treatment of syringomyelia: a literature review and a clinical case report.Zh Vopr Neirokhir Im N N Burdenko2017;81:58-65

[4] Jones R,Rusbridge C.A review of cerebrospinal fluid circulation with respect to Chiari-like malformation and syringomyelia in brachycephalic dogs.Fluids Barriers CNS2025;22:25 PMCID:PMC11895204

[5] Cirovic S,Jovanovik J,Rusbridge C.Computer simulation of syringomyelia in dogs.BMC Vet Res2018;14:82 PMCID:PMC5845370

[6] Cirovic S.Slosh simulation in a computer model of canine syringomyelia.Life2021;11:1083

[7] Dandy WE.An experimental and clinical study of internal hydrocephalus.JAMA1913;61:2216

[8] Dandy WE.An experimental, clinical and pathological study: part 1. -experimental studies.Am J Dis Child1914;VIII:406-82

[9] Dandy WE.Experimental hydrocephalus.Ann Surg1919;70:129-42 PMCID:PMC1410318

[10] Becker DP.Control of hydrocephalus by valve-regulated venous shunt: avoidance of complications in prolonged shunt maintenance.J Neurosurg1968;28:215-26

[11] Gage ED.Suegical treatment of canine hydrocephalus by verticuloatrial shunting.J Am Vet Med Assoc1968;153:1418-31

[12] Williams B.Syringomyelia produced by intramedullary fluid injection in dogs.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry1973;36:467-77 PMCID:PMC494347

[13] The British Syringomyelia Chiari Group. Available from: https://www.annconroytrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/British-Syringomyelia-Chiari-Group-Constitution.docx [Last accessed on 1 Jul 2026]

[14] Alperin N.Does the brain have mechanical compliance?.Magn Reson Mater Phys Biol Med2020;33:753-6

[15] Novak G,Burns B.Cerebrospinal fluid pressure measurements and radioisotope cisternography in dogs.Lab Anim1974;8:85-91

[16] Yuan XY,Ma Y.Temporal and spatial variations in CSF pressure are influenced by electrical stimulation of the OCI muscles in beagles.Sci Rep2025;15:33560

[17] Kurtcuoglu V,Ventikos Y.Computational modeling of the mechanical behavior of the cerebrospinal fluid system.J Biomech Eng2005;127:264-9

[18] Vandenbulcke S,Dolfen H.Evaluating amplified magnetic resonance imaging as an input for computational fluid dynamics models of the cerebrospinal fluid.Interface Focus2025;15:20240039 PMCID:PMC11969194

[19] Lloyd RA,Clarke EC.Chiari malformation may increase perivascular cerebrospinal fluid flow into the spinal cord: A SUBJEct-specific computational modelling study.J Biomech2017;65:185-93

[20] Martin BA,Shaffer N,Luciano M.Hydrodynamic and longitudinal impedance analysis of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics at the craniovertebral junction in type I Chiari malformation.PLoS One2013;8:e75335 PMCID:PMC3794956

[21] Loth F,Alperin N.Hydrodynamic modeling of cerebrospinal fluid motion within the spinal cavity.J Biomech Eng2001;123:71-9

[22] British Veterinary Association. Chiari Malformation/Syringomyelia Scheme (CM/SM Scheme). 2013. Available from: https://www.bva.co.uk/canine-health-schemes/cmsm-scheme/ [Last accessed on 1 Jul 2026]

[23] Rusbridge C,Knowler SP.Clinical application of diagnostic imaging of chiari-like malformation and syringomyelia.Front Vet Sci2018;5:280 PMCID:PMC6279941

[24] Jones R,Rusbridge C.MRI-derived three-dimensional modelling reveals cervicothoracic subarachnoid space narrowing in syringomyelia-affected cavalier king charles spaniels.BMC Vet Res2026;22:306 PMCID:PMC13203001

[25] Rich J,Vidondo B,Schweizer D.Influence of body weight, age, and sex on cerebrospinal fluid peak flow velocity in dogs without neurological disorders.J Vet Intern Med2024;38:1608-17 PMCID:PMC11099718

[26] Causemann M,Rognes ME.Human intracranial pulsatility during the cardiac cycle: a computational modelling framework.Fluids Barriers CNS2022;19:84 PMCID:PMC9623946

[27] Christen MA,Richter H,Dennler M.Quantification of cerebrospinal fluid flow in dogs by cardiac-gated phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging.J Vet Intern Med2021;35:333-40 PMCID:PMC7848380

[28] Cho H,Hong S.Cerebrospinal fluid flow in normal beagle dogs analyzed using magnetic resonance imaging.J Vet Sci2021;22:e2 PMCID:PMC7850791

[29] Cerda-Gonzalez S,Broadstone R,Osborne JA.Characteristics of cerebrospinal fluid flow in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels analyzed using phase velocity cine magnetic resonance imaging.Vet Radiol Ultrasound2009;50:467-76

[30] Farke D,Schaub S,Büttner K.CSF flow measurement in the mesencephalic aqueduct using 2D cine phase-contrast MRI in dogs with communicating internal hydrocephalus, ventriculomegaly, and physiologic ventricular spaces.Front Vet Sci2024;11:1473778 PMCID:PMC11576448

[31] Gupta S,Boesiger P,Kurtcuoglu V.Three-dimensional computational modeling of subject-specific cerebrospinal fluid flow in the subarachnoid space.J Biomech Eng2009;131:021010

[32] Khani M,Sass LR.Characterization of intrathecal cerebrospinal fluid geometry and dynamics in cynomolgus monkeys (macaca fascicularis) by magnetic resonance imaging.PLoS One2019;14:e0212239 PMCID:PMC6392269

[33] Khani M,Xing T,Balédent O.Anthropomorphic model of intrathecal cerebrospinal fluid dynamics within the spinal subarachnoid space: spinal cord nerve roots increase steady-streaming.J Biomech Eng2018;140:081012 PMCID:PMC6056198

[34] Heidari Pahlavian S,Tubbs RS.The impact of spinal cord nerve roots and denticulate ligaments on cerebrospinal fluid dynamics in the cervical spine.PLoS One2014;9:e91888 PMCID:PMC3977950

[35] Linge SO,Løvgren AE,Langtangen HP.CSF flow dynamics at the craniovertebral junction studied with an idealized model of the subarachnoid space and computational flow analysis.Am J Neuroradiol2010;31:185-92 PMCID:PMC7964070

[36] Tangen KM,Zhu DC.CNS wide simulation of flow resistance and drug transport due to spinal microanatomy.J Biomech2015;48:2144-54