Recreational gymnastics exercise of moderate intensity enhances executive function in Chinese preschoolers: A randomized controlled trial

Abstract

The current study aimed to investigate the impact of recreational gymnastics on executive function in Chinese preschoolers, with a focus on gymnastics potential to enhance core components of executive function. A total of 63 preschool children who received full-time education were randomly assigned to either an intervention group (N = 31, mean age = 66.27 months, SD = 3.12 months) or a control group (N = 32, mean age = 66.79 months, SD = 3.34 months). The intervention group engaged in recreational gymnastics for 60 min, three times a week for 12 weeks. Meanwhile, the control group continued with their typical outdoor activities at kindergarten and did not participate in any organized sports. The intervention program was primarily conducted through group play and was facilitated by teachers who underwent standardized training. Various simple and complex tasks were utilized to evaluate delay gratification (Snack delay and Wrapped gift), inhibitory control (Stop signal task and Circle drawing task), working memory (Letter memory task and Keep track task), and cognitive flexibility (Go/No-Go task and Dots task). The analysis of covariance revealed that the children who participated in the intervention outperformed the control group on most simple and complex executive function tasks. Specifically, these children demonstrated an enhanced ability to regulate persistent responses, process and update information, and manage high cognitive conflict. The findings of this investigation lend support to the hypothesis that moderate-intensity recreational gymnastics is an efficacious means of enhancing executive function in early childhood. Future research should employ a larger sample size, incorporate a long-term follow-up design, and utilize a multi-method approach to further substantiate the impact of moderate-intensity gymnastics on the executive function of young children, as well as to investigate its underlying mechanism and generalizability.

Keywords

executive function / moderate intensity / physical activity / preschooler / recreational gymnastics

References

[1] American College of Sports Medicine. (2012). ACSM’s resource manual for guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

[2] Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 71–82.

[3] Bayanova, L., Chichinina, E., Veraksa, A., Almazova, O., & Dolgikh, A. (2022). Difference in executive functions development level between two groups: Preschool children who took extra music classes in art schools and children who took only general music and dance classes offered by preschools. Education Sciences, 12(2), 119.

[4] Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331–351.

[5] Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children’s functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57(2), 111–127.

[6] Broer, M., Bai, Y., Fonseca, F., Broer, M., Bai, Y., & Fonseca, F. (2019). A review of the literature on socioeconomic status and educational achievement. In Socioeconomic inequality and educational outcomes: Evidence from twenty years of TIMSS (pp. 7–17). Springer.

[7] Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 205–228.

[8] Burgess, N. S., Knight, C. J., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2016). Parental stress and coping in elite youth gymnastics: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 8(3), 237–256.

[9] Busquets, A., Ferrer-Uris, B., Angulo-Barroso, R., & Federolf, P. (2021). Gymnastics experience enhances the development of bipedal-stance multi-segmental coordination and control during proprioceptive reweighting. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 661312.

[10] D. J. Caine, K. Russell, & L. Lim (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of sports medicine and science: Gymnastics. John Wiley & Sons.

[11] Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge.

[12] Colcombe, S. J., Kramer, A. F., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P., McAuley, E., Cohen, N. J., Webb, A., Jerome, G. J., Marquez, D. X., & Elavsky, S. (2004). Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(9), 3316–3321.

[13] Cotman, C. W., & Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: A behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences, 25(6), 295–301.

[14] Cox, E. P., Cook, R., O’Dwyer, N., Donges, C., Parker, H., Cheng, H. L., et al. (2021). The relationship between habitual physical activity, sitting time, and cognitive function in young adult women. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 18(9), 1082–1087.

[15] Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037–2078.

[16] Del Missier, F., Mäntylä T., & De Bruin, W. B. (2012). Decision-making competence, executive functioning, and general cognitive abilities. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25(4), 331–351.

[17] Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964.

[18] Etnier, J. L., Nowell, P. M., Landers, D. M., & Sibley, B. A. (2006). A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Research Reviews, 52(1), 119–130.

[19] Garcia, C., Barela, J. A., Viana, A. R., & Barela, A. M. F. (2011). Influence of gymnastics training on the development of postural control. Neuroscience Letters, 492(1), 29–32.

[20] Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Willis, C., & Adams, A. M. (2006). Working memory in children with reading disabilities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93(3), 265–281.

[21] Gibson, A. L., Wagner, D., & Heyward, V. (2019). Advanced fitness assessment and exercise prescription (8th ed.). Human Kinetics.

[22] Green, V. A., & Rechis, R. (2006). Children’s cooperative and competitive interactions in limited resource situations: A literature review. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 42–59.

[23] Grissom, N. M., & Reyes, T. M. (2019). Let’s call the whole thing off: Evaluating gender and sex differences in executive function. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44(1), 86–96.

[24] Hansmann, R., Hug, S. M., & Seeland, K. (2007). Restoration and stress relief through physical activities in forests and parks. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 6(4), 213–225.

[25] Hart, D. A., & Zernicke, R. F. (2020). Optimal human functioning requires exercise across the lifespan: Mobility in a 1g environment is intrinsic to the integrity of multiple biological systems. Frontiers in Physiology, 11, 156.

[26] Helfat, C. E., & Peteraf, M. A. (2015). Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities. Strategic Management Journal, 36(6), 831–850.

[27] Hiley, M. J., Schmid, N., & Yeadon, M. R. (2019). How do technique and coordination change during learning of a whole-body task: Application to the upstart in gymnastics. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(20), 2374–2380.

[28] Hillman, C. H., Khan, N. A., & Kao, S. C. (2015). The relationship of health behaviors to childhood cognition and brain health. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 66(Suppl. 3), 1–4.

[29] Horak, F. B. (2006). Postural orientation and equilibrium: What do we need to know about neural control of balance to prevent falls? Age and Ageing, 35(suppl_2), ii7–ii11.

[30] Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., & Van der Molen, M. W. (2006). Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2017–2036.

[31] Iorga, A. (2019). The importance of coordination in the world of motion. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 19(6), 2173–2176.

[32] Kelly, J. B., & Emery, R. E. (2003). Children’s adjustment following divorce: Risk and resilience perspectives. Family Relations, 52(4), 352–362.

[33] Kiuchukov, I., Yanev, I., Petrov, L., Kolimechkov, S., Alexandrova, A., Zaykova, D., & Stoimenov, E. (2019). Impact of gymnastics training on the health-related physical fitness of young female and male artistic gymnasts. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 11(2), 175–187.

[34] Knaepen, K., Goekint, M., Heyman, E. M., & Meeusen, R. (2010). Neuroplasticity-exercise-induced response of peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Sports Medicine, 40(9), 765–801.

[35] Kochanska, G., Murray, K., Jacques, T. Y., Koenig, A. L., & Vandegeest, K. A. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67(2), 490–507.

[36] Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 220–232.

[37] Kouklari, E. C., Tsermentseli, S., & Monks, C. P. (2018). Hot and cool executive function in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: Cross-sectional developmental trajectories. Child Neuropsychology, 24(8), 1088–1114.

[38] Kusak, G., Grune, K., Hagendorf, H., & Metz, A. M. (2000). Updating of working memory in a running memory task: An event-related potential study. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 39(1), 51–65.

[39] Liu, Z. M., Chen, C. Q., Fan, X. L., Lin, C. C., & Ye, X. D. (2022). Usability and effects of a combined physical and cognitive intervention based on active video games for preschool children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(12), 7420.

[40] Livesey, D., Keen, J., Rouse, J., & White, F. (2006). The relationship between measures of executive function, motor performance and externalising behaviour in 5-and 6-year-old children. Human Movement Science, 25(1), 50–64.

[41] Lou, S. J., Liu, J. Y., Chang, H., & Chen, P. J. (2008). Hippocampal neurogenesis and gene expression depend on exercise intensity in juvenile rats. Brain Research, 1210, 48–55.

[42] Marzocchi, G. M., Oosterlaan, J., Zuddas, A., Cavolina, P., Geurts, H., Redigolo, D., Vio, C., & Sergeant, J. A. (2008). Contrasting deficits on executive functions between ADHD and reading disabled children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49(5), 543–552.

[43] D. McCaw (Ed.). (2012). The Laban sourcebook. Routledge.

[44] McNeill, J., Howard, S. J., Vella, S. A., & Cliff, D. P. (2020). Longitudinal associations of physical activity and modified organized sport participation with executive function and psychosocial health in preschoolers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38(24), 2858–2865.

[45] Ming, H., Zhang, F., Jiang, Y., Ren, Y., & Huang, S. (2021). Family socio-economic status and children’s executive function: The moderating effects of parental subjective socio-economic status and children’s subjective social mobility. British Journal of Psychology, 112(3), 720–740.

[46] Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100.

[47] Mulder, T., & Hochstenbach, J. (2001). Adaptability and flexibility of the human motor system: Implications for neurological rehabilitation. Neural Plasticity, 8(1–2), 131–140.

[48] Myer, G. D., Faigenbaum, A. D., Edwards, N. M., Clark, J. F., Best, T. M., & Sallis, R. E. (2015). Sixty minutes of what? A developing brain perspective for activating children with an integrative exercise approach. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(23), 1510–1516.

[49] Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Fuhs, M. W. (2015). Executive function skills and academic achievement gains in prekindergarten: Contributions of learning-related behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 51(7), 865–878.

[50] Nieto-López, M., Sánchez-López, M., Visier-Alfonso, M. E., Martínez-Vizcaíno, V., Jiménez-López, E., & Álvarez-Bueno, C. (2020). Relation between physical fitness and executive function variables in a preschool sample. Pediatric Research, 88(4), 623–628.

[51] Niaradi, F. D. S. L., & Batista, C. G. (2019). Effect of holistic gymnastics in the flexibility of girls between 10 and 12 years. Journal of Physical Education, 29, e2954.

[52] Pesce, C., Masci, I., Marchetti, R., Vazou, S., Sääkslahti, A., & Tomporowski, P. D. (2016). Deliberate play and preparation jointly benefit motor and cognitive development: Mediated and moderated effects. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 349.

[53] Piao, J. J., Wan, B., Zhao, H., Shang, Z., Yan, L., Hao, Z., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Gu, Y. (2022). Effects of different brisk walking intensities on adherence and cardiorespiratory endurance of cardiac rehabilitation among patients with CHD after PCI: Protocol for a randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open, 12(4), e055437.

[54] Piccolo, L. R., Merz, E. C., & Noble, K. G. (2019). School climate is associated with cortical thickness and executive function in children and adolescents. Developmental Science, 22(1), e12719.

[55] Raudsepp, L. (2006). The relationship between socio-economic status, parental support and adolescent physical activity. Acta Paediatrica, 95(1), 93–98.

[56] Raven, J. (2003). Raven progressive matrices. In Handbook of nonverbal assessment (pp. 223–237). Springer.

[57] Rosenberg, L. (2015). The associations between executive functions’ capacities, performance process skills, and dimensions of participation in activities of daily life among children of elementary school age. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 4(3), 148–156.

[58] Schaaf, M. J. M., De Kloet, E. R., & Vreugdenhil, E. (2000). Corticosterone effects on BDNF expression in the hippocampus implications for memory formation. Stress, 3(3), 201–208.

[59] Schmidt, M., Jäger, K., Egger, F., Roebers, C. M., & Conzelmann, A. (2015). Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: A group-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37(6), 575–591.

[60] Schroeder, V. M., & Kelley, M. L. (2010). Family environment and parent-child relationships as related to executive functioning in children. Early Child Development and Care, 180(10), 1285–1298.

[61] Shepherd, R. B. (2001). Exercise and training to optimize functional motor performance in stroke: Driving neural reorganization? Neural Plasticity, 8(1–2), 121–129.

[62] St Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(4), 745–759.

[63] Su, L., Geng, Y., Wang, H., Du, Y., Sun, L., Zhao, F., & Fan, F. (2006). Norm of ADHD Diagnostic Scale-Parent Version in Chinese urban children. Chinese Journals of Practical Medicine, i, 833–836.

[64] Tandon, P. S., Tovar, A., Jayasuriya, A. T., Welker, E., Schober, D. J., Copeland, K., Dev, D. A., Murriel, A. L., Amso, D., & Ward, D. S. (2016). The relationship between physical activity and diet and young children’s cognitive development: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine Reports, 3, 379–390.

[65] Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., Wager, T. D., Phan, K. L., Fitzgerald, K. D., & Gehring, W. J. (2004). A functional neuroimaging study of motivation and executive function. Neuroimage, 21(3), 1045–1054.

[66] Traverso, L., Viterbori, P., & Usai, M. C. (2015). Improving executive function in childhood: Evaluation of a training intervention for 5-year-old children. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 134151.

[67] Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2008). Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5(1), 1–12.

[68] Turnbull, K., Reid, G. J., & Morton, J. B. (2013). Behavioral sleep problems and their potential impact on developing executive function in children. Sleep, 36(7), 1077–1084.

[69] Ursache, A., & Noble, K. G. (2016). Socioeconomic status, white matter, and executive function in children. Brain and Behavior, 6(10), e00531.

[70] van Ginneken, E. F. J. C. (2017). Constrained agency: The role of self-control in the process of desistance. In E. Hart & E. Ginneken (Eds.), New perspectives on desistance. Palgrave Macmillan.

[71] Voss, M. W., Carr, L. J., Clark, R., & Weng, T. (2014). Revenge of the “sit” II: Does lifestyle impact neuronal and cognitive health through distinct mechanisms associated with sedentary behavior and physical activity? Mental Health and Physical Activity, 7(1), 9–24.

[72] Wahyuni, E. S., & Arifiati, R. F. (2021). Gymnastics improve quality of life. Jurnal Keterapian Fisik, 6(1), 29–37.

[73] Wass, S. V. (2015). Applying cognitive training to target executive functions during early development. Child Neuropsychology, 21(2), 150–166.

[74] Werner, P. H., Williams, L. H., & Hall, T. J. (2012). Teaching children gymnastics. Human Kinetics.

[75] Zelazo, P. D. (2006). The dimensional change card sort (Go/No-Go): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297–301.

[76] Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2020). The neurodevelopment of executive function skills: Implications for academic achievement gaps. Psychology & Neuroscience, 13(3), 273–298.

[77] Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2011). Executive function in typical and atypical development (pp. 445–469). Blackwell Publisher.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 The Author(s). PsyCh Journal published by Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.