Another way to measure balanced time perspective: Development and validation of the Time Perspective Inventory

Abstract

The existing scales for measuring balanced time perspective (BTP) have limitations, such as poor-fitting structures or a complex calculation method. Based on previous studies, we conceptualize BTP as an individual's overall positive outlook on the past and future and mindfully living in the present. The present study aimed to develop the Time Perspective Inventory (TPI) for Chinese adults, determine its psychometric properties, and examine a simple calculation method for generating a score to represent BTP. In study 1, a 7-factor structure of TPI – Past Positive, Past Negative, Mindful Present, Present Hedonistic, Present Excessively Task-oriented, Future Positive, and Future Negative – was established through exploratory (sample 1, N = 529) and confirmatory (sample 2, N = 577) factor analyses. Findings supported the internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and criterion-related validity of the TPI. We proposed using the score difference between positive time perspectives and negative time perspectives to calculate the BTP. Findings showed that the correlations between BTP and subjective well-being indicators and anxiety were higher than among individual dimensions of TPI. Study 2 (sample 3, N = 713) compared the effects of the TPI and the Chinese version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI-C) on well-being indicators and anxiety. Results indicated that the variance of life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and anxiety explained by BTP measured with TPI was higher than deviation from BTP (DBTP) measured with ZTPI-C. Together, the TPI yields reliable and valid BTP scores among Chinese adults.

Keywords

anxiety / life satisfaction / negative affect / positive affect / time perspective inventory

References

[1] Barker, V., Romaniuk, L., Cardinal, R. N., Pope, M., Nicol, K., & Hall, J. (2015). Impulsivity in borderline personality disorder. Psychological Medicine, 45(9), 1955–1964.

[2] Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal, Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.

[3] Boniwell, I., Osin, E., Linley, P. A., & Ivanchenko, G. V. (2010). A question of balance: Time perspective and well-being in British and Russian samples. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 24–40.

[4] Boniwell, I., & Zimbardo, P. (2004). Balancing time perspective in pursuit of optimal functioning. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 165–178). John Wiley & Sons.

[5] Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2011). A review of the tripartite structure of subjective well-being: Implications for conceptualization, operationalization, analysis, and synthesis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 290–314.

[6] Carelli, M. G., Wiberg, B., & Åström, E. (2015). Broadening the TP profile: Future negative time perspective. In M. Stolarski, N. Fieulaine, & W. van Beek (Eds.), Time perspective theory; review, research and application (pp. 87–97). Springer International Publishing.

[7] Chan, S. M., Kwok, W. W., & Fung, T. W. (2019). Psychometric properties of the Zimbardo time perspective inventory in Hong Kong adolescents. Time and Society, 28(1), 33–49.

[8] Chavarria, J., Allan, N. P., Moltisanti, A., & Taylor, J. (2015). The effects of present hedonistic time perspective and past negative time perspective on substance use consequences. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 152, 39–46.

[9] Davis, M. A., & Cernas Ortiz, D. A. (2017). Revisiting the structural and nomological validity of the Zimbardo time perspective inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, 98–103.

[10] Diaconu-Gherasim, L. R., Mardari, C. R., & Măirean, C. (2021). The relation between time perspectives and well-being: A meta-analysis on research. Current Psychology, 42, 5951–5963.

[11] Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75.

[12] Drake, L., Duncan, E., Sutherland, F., Abernethy, C., & Henry, C. (2008). Time perspective and correlates of wellbeing. Time and Society, 17(1), 47–61.

[13] Horwitz, A. G., Berona, J., Czyz, E. K., Yeguez, C. E., & King, C. A. (2017). Positive and negative expectations of hopelessness as longitudinal predictors of depression, suicidal ideation, and suicidal behavior in high-risk adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 47(2), 168–176.

[14] Jankowski, K. S., Zajenkowski, M., & Stolarski, M. (2020). What are the optimal levels of time perspectives? Deviation from the balanced time perspective-revisited (DBTP-R). Psychologica Belgica, 60(1), 164–183.

[15] Keough, K. A., Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Who's smoking, drinking, and using drugs? Time perspective as a predictor of substance use. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21(2), 149–164.

[16] Laghi, F., Baiocco, R., Liga, F., Guarino, A., & Baumgartner, E. (2013). Identity status differences among Italian adolescents: Associations with time perspective. Children and Youth Services Review, 35, 482–487.

[17] Leung, D. Y., Lam, T. H., & Chan, S. S. (2010). Three versions of perceived stress scale: Validation in a sample of Chinese cardiac patients who smoke. BMC Public Health, 10, 513.

[18] Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in the social sciences: Selected theoretical papers. Harper.

[19] Li, X., Wang, C., Lyu, H., Worrell, F. C., & Mello, Z. R. (2022). Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Zimbardo time perspective inventory. Current Psychology, 42, 13547–13559.

[20] Love, A. B., & Holder, M. D. (2014). Psychopathy and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 66, 112–117.

[21] Lyu, H., & Huang, X. (2016). Development and validation of future time perspective scale for adolescents and young adults. Time and Society, 25, 533–551.

[22] McKay, M. T., Worrell, F. C., Perry, J. L., Chishima, Y., Živkovič, U., Mello, Z. R., & Cole, J. C. (2022). “Even a broken clock is right twice a day”: The case of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 184, 111157.

[23] McKay, M. T., Worrell, F. C., Temple, E. C., Perry, J. L., Cole, J. C., & Mello, Z. R. (2015). Less is not always more: The case of the 36-item short form of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 68–71.

[24] Mohammed, S., & Marhefka, J. T. (2020). How have we, do we, and will we measure time perspective? A review of methodological and measurement issues. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 41(3), 276–293.

[25] Mooney, A., Earl, J. K., Mooney, C. H., & Bateman, H. (2017). Using balanced time perspective to explain well-being and planning in retirement. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1781.

[26] Qiu, X., Zheng, X., & Wang, Y. (2008). Revision of the positive affect and negative affect scale. Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology, 4(3), 249–254.

[27] Rönnlund, M., Koudriavtseva, A., Germundsjö, L., Eriksson, T., Åström, E., & Carelli, M. G. (2019). Mindfulness promotes a more balanced time perspective: Correlational and intervention-based evidence. Mindfulness, 10(8), 1579–1591.

[28] Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Sage Publications.

[29] Seema, R., & Sircova, A. (2013). Mindfulness a time perspective? Estonian study. Baltic Journal of Psychology, 14, 4–21.

[30] Shostrom, E. L. (1974). Manual for the personal orientation inventory. Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

[31] Sobol-Kwapińska, M. (2013). Hedonism, fatalism and “carpe diem”: Profiles of attitudes towards the present time. Time and Society, 22(3), 371–390.

[32] Sobol-Kwapińska, M., & Jankowski, T. (2016). Positive time: Balanced time perspective and positive orientation. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(4), 1511–1528.

[33] Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166, 1092–1097.

[34] Stolarski, M., Bitner, J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2011). Time perspective, emotional intelligence and discounting of delayed awards. Time and Society, 20(3), 346–363.

[35] Stolarski, M., Zajenkowski, M., Jankowski, K. S., & Szymaniak, K. (2020). Deviation from the balanced time perspective: A systematic review of empirical relationships with psychological variables. Personality and Individual Differences, 156, 109772.

[36] Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Pearson Education.

[37] Vowinckel, J. C., Westerhof, G. J., Bohlmeijer, E. T., & Webster, J. D. (2015). Flourishing in the now: Initial validation of a present-eudaimonic time perspective scale. Time and Society, 26(2), 203–226.

[38] Wang, Y., Chen, X. J., Cui, J. F., & Liu, L. L. (2015). Testing the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory in the Chinese context. PsyCh Journal, 4(3), 166–175.

[39] Webster, J. D. (2011). A new measure of time perspective: Initial psychometric findings for the Balanced Time Perspective Scale (BTPS). Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 43(2), 111–118.

[40] Wittmann, M., Peter, J., Gutina, O., Otten, S., Kohls, N., & Meissner, K. (2014). Individual differences in self-attributed mindfulness levels are related to the experience of time and cognitive self-control. Personality and Individual Differences, 64, 41–45.

[41] Worrell, F. C., Mello, Z. R., & Buhl, M. (2013). Introducing English and German versions of the Adolescent Time Attitude Scale. Assessment, 20(4), 496–510.

[42] Worrell, F. C., Temple, E. C., McKay, M. T., Živkovič, U., Perry, J. L., Mello, Z. R., Musil, B., & Cole, J. C. (2018). A theoretical approach to resolving the psychometric problems associated with the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory: Results from the USA, Australia, Slovenia, and the United Kingdom. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 34(1), 41–51.

[43] Xiong, C., & Xu, Y. (2009). Reliability and validity of the satisfaction with life scale for Chinese demos. China Journal of Health Psychology, 17(8), 948–949.

[44] Zhang, J. W., Howell, R. T., & Stolarski, M. (2013). Comparing three methods to measure a balanced time perspective: The relationship between a balanced time perspective and subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(1), 169–184.

[45] Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271–1288.

[46] Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (2008). The time paradox: The new psychology of time that will change your life. Free Press.

[47] Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (2012). Time perspective profile score sheet. The Time Paradox. www.thetimeparadox.com/surveys

[48] Zimbardo, P. G., Keough, K. A., & Boyd, J. N. (1997). Present time perspective as a predictor of risky driving. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(6), 1007–1023.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 2024 The Authors. PsyCh Journal published by Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.