Anxiety and Performance in High-Achieving Adolescents: Associations Among 8 General and Specific Anxiety Measures and 13 School Grades

Maxim Likhanov; Evgenia Alenina; Tomasz Bloniewski; Xinlin Zhou; Yulia Kovas

doi:10.1002/pchj.70088

Psych Journal ›› 2026, Vol. 15 ›› Issue (2) :e70088 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.70088

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Anxiety and Performance in High-Achieving Adolescents: Associations Among 8 General and Specific Anxiety Measures and 13 School Grades

Author information +

History +

PDF (920KB)

Abstract

Despite years of research, the links between domain-general and domain-specific anxieties (e.g., social), as well as their links with academic performance in different domains remain poorly understood. The current study explores anxiety-academic performance associations across eight domain-general and domain-specific anxiety measures (tapping into trait, state, maths, spatial, and social anxiety, worry, and anxiety sensitivity, as well as symptoms of Generalized Anxiety Disorder, GAD) and 13 school subjects in a large (N = ~800) sample of schoolchildren (M_age = 15.26), selected for high achievement in STEM, Arts, Sports, and Literature. Our data showed that all anxiety measures load onto single general anxiety factor, explaining 51% of variance; and suggesting substantive amount of unique variance in each measure. Regression analysis showed that domain-general anxiety (e.g., trait anxiety and GAD symptoms) did not explain much variance in academic outcomes, while domain-specific anxiety explained variance in respective domains. For example, maths anxiety was linked with Algebra and Geometry performance. The results demonstrated that the negative link between anxiety and performance is present even in adolescents with high academic achievement (i.e., adolescents with high achievement in STEM) and this link is of small-to-medium effect size. Interestingly, worry scale correlated positively with performance after controlling for other anxiety measures, probably reflecting this measure tapping into some motivational and/or arousal aspects of anxiety. The study provides new insights into anxiety-performance links that can be used for further development of measures and educational interventions.

Keywords

academic performance / factor analysis / general anxiety / school grades / specific anxiety

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Maxim Likhanov, Evgenia Alenina, Tomasz Bloniewski, Xinlin Zhou, Yulia Kovas. Anxiety and Performance in High-Achieving Adolescents: Associations Among 8 General and Specific Anxiety Measures and 13 School Grades. Psych Journal, 2026, 15 (2) : e70088 DOI:10.1002/pchj.70088

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	Ahmed, W. 2018. “Developmental Trajectories of Math Anxiety During Adolescence: Associations With STEM Career Choice.” Journal of Adolescence 67: 158–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.010.

[2]	Alenina, E., M. Likhanov, I. Zakharov, V. Kosonogov, and Y. Kovas. 2025. “That which we call anxiety: Differences in resting state brain connectivity for two commonly used anxiety measures - STAI-T and GAD-7. PsyArXiv.” https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/xduzq_v1.

[3]	Alfonso, S. V., and C. J. Lonigan. 2021. “Trait Anxiety and Adolescent's Academic Achievement: The Role of Executive Function.” Learning and Individual Differences 85: 101941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101941.

[4]	Atit, K., J. R. Power, T. Pigott, et al. 2022. “Examining the Relations Between Spatial Skills and Mathematical Performance: A meta-Analysis.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 29, no. 3: 699–720. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-021-02012-w.

[5]	Bados, A., J. Gómez-Benito, and G. Balaguer. 2010. “The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Trait Version: Does It Really Measure Anxiety?” Journal of Personality Assessment 92, no. 6: 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.513295.

[6]

Baez, S., M. A. Tangarife, G. Davila-Mejia, M. Trujillo-Güiza, and D. A. Forero. 2023. “Performance in Emotion Recognition and Theory of Mind Tasks in Social Anxiety and Generalized Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review and meta-Analysis.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 14: 1192683. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1192683.

[7]	Barker, B. M., H. R. Barker, and A. P. Wadsworth. 1977. “Factor Analysis of the Items of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 33, no. 2: 450–455. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(197704)33:2<450::AID-JCLP2270330225>3.0.CO;2-M.

[8]	Barnes, L. L. B., D. Harp, and W. S. Jung. 2002. “Reliability Generalization of Scores on the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.” Educational and Psychological Measurement 62, no. 4: 603–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402062004005.

[9]	Barroso, C., C. M. Ganley, A. L. McGraw, E. A. Geer, S. A. Hart, and M. C. Daucourt. 2021. “A Meta-Analysis of the Relation Between Math Anxiety and Math Achievement.” Psychological Bulletin 147, no. 2: 134–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000307.

[10]	Bartseva, K., M. Likhanov, E. Tsigeman, et al. 2024. “No Spatial Advantage in Adolescent Hockey Players? Exploring Measure Specificity and Masked Effects.” Intelligence 102: 101805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2023.101805.

[11]	Beard, C., and T. Björgvinsson. 2014. “Beyond Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Psychometric Properties of the GAD-7 in a Heterogeneous Psychiatric Sample.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 28, no. 6: 547–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.06.002.

[12]	Becker, D., T. R. Coyle, T. L. Minnigh, and H. Rindermann. 2022. “International Differences in Math and Science Tilts: The Stability, Geography, and Predictive Power of Tilt for Economic Criteria.” Intelligence 92: 101646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2022.101646.

[13]	Behar, E., I. D. DiMarco, E. B. Hekler, J. Mohlman, and A. M. Staples. 2009. “Current Theoretical Models of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Conceptual Review and Treatment Implications.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23, no. 8: 1011–1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.07.006.

[14]	Bieling, P. J., M. M. Antony, and R. P. Swinson. 1998. “The State—Trait Anxiety Inventory, Trait Version: Structure and Content Re-Examined.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 36, no. 7–8: 777–788. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00023-0.

[15]	Birkeland, M. S., I. Blix, Ø. Solberg, and T. Heir. 2017. “Gender Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms After a Terrorist Attack: A Network Approach.” Frontiers in Psychology 8: 2091. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02091.

[16]	Blakemore, S.-J., and K. L. Mills. 2014. “Is Adolescence a Sensitive Period for Sociocultural Processing?” Annual Review of Psychology 65: 187–207. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202.

[17]	Brown, T. A. 2015. “Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. Guilford.”

[18]	Buckley, J., N. Seery, and D. Canty. 2018. “A Heuristic Framework of Spatial Ability: A Review and Synthesis of Spatial Factor Literature to Support Its Translation Into STEM Education.” Educational Psychology Review 30, no. 3: 947–972. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9432-z.

[19]	Budakova, A. V., M. V. Likhanov, T. Bloniewski, S. B. Malykh, and K. V. Kovas. 2020. “Mathematical Anxiety: Etiology, Development and Links With Mathematical Achievement.” Voprosy Psikhologii 2020, no. 1: 109–118.

[20]

Budakova, A. V., M. V. Likhanov, T. Toivainen, et al. 2021. “Measuring Spatial Ability for Talent Identification, Educational Assessment, and Support: Evidence from Adolescents with High Achievement in Science, Arts, and Sports.” Psychology in Russia: State of the Art 14, no. 2: 59–85. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2021.0205.

[21]	Cassady, J. C., E. E. Pierson, and J. M. Starling. 2019. “Predicting Student Depression With Measures of General and Academic Anxieties.” Frontiers in Education 4: 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2019.00011.

[22]

Caviola, S., E. Toffalini, D. Giofrè, J. M. Ruiz, D. Szűcs, and I. C. Mammarella. 2022. “Math Performance and Academic Anxiety Forms, From Sociodemographic to Cognitive Aspects: A Meta-Analysis on 906,311 Participants.” Educational Psychology Review 34, no. 1: 363–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09618-5.

[23]	Contini, D., M. L. D. Tommaso, and S. Mendolia. 2017. “The Gender Gap in Mathematics Achievement: Evidence From Italian Data.” Economics of Education Review 58: 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.03.001.

[24]	Cortes, R. A., E. G. Peterson, D. J. M. Kraemer, et al. 2022. “Transfer From Spatial Education to Verbal Reasoning and Prediction of Transfer From Learning-Related Neural Change.” Science Advances 8, no. 32: eabo3555. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo3555.

[25]	Curran, P. J., S. G. West, and J. F. Finch. 1996. “The Robustness of Test Statistics to Nonnormality and Specification Error in Confirmatory Factor Analysis.” Psychological Methods 1, no. 1: 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16.

[26]	D'Agostino, A., F. Schirripa Spagnolo, and N. Salvati. 2022. “Studying the Relationship Between Anxiety and School Achievement: Evidence From PISA Data.” Statistical Methods & Applications 31: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10260-021-00563-9.

[27]	Daker, R. J., S. U. Gattas, H. M. Sokolowski, A. E. Green, and I. M. Lyons. 2021. “First-Year Students' Math Anxiety Predicts STEM Avoidance and Underperformance Throughout University, Independently of Math Ability.” npj Science of Learning 6: 17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-021-00095-7.

[28]

Dear, B. F., N. Titov, M. Sunderland, et al. 2011. “Psychometric Comparison of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 and the Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Measuring Response During Treatment of Generalised Anxiety Disorder.” Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 40, no. 3: 216–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2011.582138.

[29]	Deieso, D., and B. J. Fraser. 2019. “Learning Environment, Attitudes and Anxiety Across the Transition From Primary to Secondary School Mathematics.” Learning Environments Research 22: 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-018-9261-5.

[30]

Doi, S., M. Ito, Y. Takebayashi, K. Muramatsu, and M. Horikoshi. 2018. “Factorial Validity and Invariance of the 7-Item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) Among Populations With and Without Self-Reported Psychiatric Diagnostic Status.” Frontiers in Psychology 9: 1741. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01741.

[31]	Dong, W., Q. Ying, T. Yang, L. Zhu, Y. Liu, and X. Wan. 2023. “Geography Education Improves Spatial Ability: Evidence From fMRI and Behavioral Experiments.” Cartography and Geographic Information Science 50, no. 3: 289–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/15230406.2023.2171493.

[32]	Dowker, A., A. Sarkar, and C. Y. Looi. 2016. “Mathematics Anxiety: What Have we Learned in 60 Years?” Frontiers in Psychology 7: 508. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00508.

[33]	Else-Quest, N. M., J. S. Hyde, H. H. Goldsmith, and C. A. Van Hulle. 2006. “Gender Differences in Temperament: A meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 132, no. 1: 33–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33.

[34]	Elwood, L. S., K. Wolitzky-Taylor, and B. O. Olatunji. 2012. “Measurement of Anxious Traits: A Contemporary Review and Synthesis.” Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 25, no. 6: 647–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2011.582949.

[35]

Esbjørn, B. H., M. L. Reinholdt-Dunne, I. D. Caspersen, L. B. Christensen, and B. F. Chorpita. 2013. “Penn State Worry Questionnaire: Findings Form Normative and Clinical Samples in Denmark.” Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 35, no. 1: 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9320-7.

[36]	Eysenck, M. W., and M. G. Calvo. 1992. “Anxiety and Performance: The Processing Efficiency Theory.” Cognition & Emotion 6, no. 6: 409–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939208409696.

[37]	Eysenck, M. W., N. Derakshan, R. Santos, and M. G. Calvo. 2007. “Anxiety and Cognitive Performance: Attentional Control Theory.” Emotion 7, no. 2: 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336.

[38]	Ferguson, A. M., E. A. Maloney, J. Fugelsang, and E. F. Risko. 2015. “On the Relation Between Math and Spatial Ability: The Case of Math Anxiety.” Learning and Individual Differences 39: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.02.007.

[39]	Field, A. P., D. Evans, T. Bloniewski, and Y. Kovas. 2019. “Predicting Maths Anxiety From Mathematical Achievement Across the Transition From Primary to Secondary Education.” Royal Society Open Science 6, no. 11: 191459. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191459.

[40]	Field, A. P., J. Miles, and Z. Field. 2012. Discovering Statistics Using R. Sage.

[41]	Fried, E. I., S. Epskamp, R. M. Nesse, F. Tuerlinckx, and D. Borsboom. 2016. “What Are “Good” Depression Symptoms? Comparing the Centrality of DSM and Non-DSM Symptoms of Depression in a Network Analysis.” Journal of Affective Disorders 189: 314–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.005.

[42]	Geer, E. A., C. Barroso, R. A. Conlon, J. M. Dasher, and C. M. Ganley. 2024. “A meta-Analytic Review of the Relation Between Spatial Anxiety and Spatial Skills.” Psychological Bulletin 150, no. 4: 464–486. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000420.

[43]	Gibeau, R.-M., E. A. Maloney, S. Béland, et al. 2023. “The Correlates of Statistics Anxiety: Relationships With Spatial Anxiety, Mathematics Anxiety and Gender.” Journal of Numerical Cognition 9, no. 1: 16–43. https://doi.org/10.5964/jnc.8199.

[44]	Gillis, M. M., D. A. F. Haaga, and G. T. Ford. 1995. “Normative Values for the Beck Anxiety Inventory, Fear Questionnaire, Penn State Worry Questionnaire, and Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory.” Psychological Assessment 7, no. 4: 450–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.4.450.

[45]	Ginsburg, G. S., and K. L. Drake. 2002. “Anxiety Sensitivity and Panic Attack Symptomatology Among Low-Income African–American Adolescents.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 16, no. 1: 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(01)00092-5.

[46]

Grös, D. F., M. M. Antony, L. J. Simms, and R. E. McCabe. 2007. “Psychometric Properties of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA): Comparison to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).” Psychological Assessment 19, no. 4: 369–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.4.369.

[47]	Gustavsen, A. M. 2019. “Gender Differences in Academic Achievement: A Matter of Contextual Classroom Influence?” International Journal of Research Studies in Education 8, no. 1: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.5861/ijrse.2018.2013.

[48]	Hawes, Z., and D. Ansari. 2020. “What Explains the Relationship Between Spatial and Mathematical Skills? A Review of Evidence From Brain and Behavior.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 27, no. 3: 465–482. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01694-7.

[49]	Heeren, A., E. E. Bernstein, and R. J. McNally. 2018. “Deconstructing Trait Anxiety: A Network Perspective.” Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 31, no. 3: 262–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2018.1439263.

[50]	Hembree, R. 1990. “The Nature, Effects, and Relief of Mathematics Anxiety.” Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 21, no. 1: 33–46. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.21.1.0033.

[51]

Hill, F., I. C. Mammarella, A. Devine, S. Caviola, M. C. Passolunghi, and D. Szűcs. 2016. “Maths Anxiety in Primary and Secondary School Students: Gender Differences, Developmental Changes and Anxiety Specificity.” Learning and Individual Differences 48: 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.02.006.

[52]	Hinz, A., A. M. Klein, E. Brähler, et al. 2017. “Psychometric Evaluation of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener GAD-7, Based on a Large German General Population Sample.” Journal of Affective Disorders 210: 338–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.012.

[53]	Hogg, T. L., S. K. Stanley, L. V. O'Brien, M. S. Wilson, and C. R. Watsford. 2021. “The Hogg Eco-Anxiety Scale: Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Scale.” Global Environmental Change 71: 102391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102391.

[54]	Hopko, D. R., R. Mahadevan, R. L. Bare, and M. K. Hunt. 2003. “The Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS): Construction, Validity, and Reliability.” Assessment 10, no. 2: 178–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191103010002008.

[55]	Hornstra, L., A. Bakx, S. Mathijssen, and J. J. A. Denissen. 2020. “Motivating Gifted and Non-Gifted Students in Regular Primary Schools: A Self-Determination Perspective.” Learning and Individual Differences 80: 101871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101871.

[56]	Houtte, M. V. 2004. “Why Boys Achieve Less at School Than Girls: The Difference Between Boys' and Girls' Academic Culture.” Educational Studies 30, no. 2: 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569032000159804.

[57]	Huang, H.-T. D. 2018. “Modeling the Relationships Between Anxieties and Performance in Second/Foreign Language Speaking Assessment.” Learning and Individual Differences 63: 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.03.002.

[58]	Hutcheson, G. 1999. The Multivariate Social Scientist. SAGE Publications, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/978085702807.

[59]	Hyde, J. S., S. M. Lindberg, M. C. Linn, A. B. Ellis, and C. C. Williams. 2008. “Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance.” Science 321, no. 5888: 494–495. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1160364.

[60]	International Test Commission. 2017. “The ITC Guidelines for Translating and Adapting Tests.”

[61]	Jackson, J. E. 1991. A Use's Guide to Principal Components. 1st ed. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471725331.

[62]	Jolliffe, I. T., and J. Cadima. 2016. “Principal Component Analysis: A Review and Recent Developments.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 374, no. 2065: 20150202. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2015.0202.

[63]

Kertz, S. J., J. S. Bigda-Peyton, D. H. Rosmarin, and T. Björgvinsson. 2012. “The Importance of Worry Across Diagnostic Presentations: Prevalence, Severity and Associated Symptoms in a Partial Hospital Setting.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 26, no. 1: 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.10.005.

[64]	La Greca, A. M., and N. Lopez. 1998. “Social Anxiety Among Adolescents: Linkages With Peer Relations and Friendships.” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 26, no. 2: 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022684520514.

[65]	Lauer, J. E., A. G. Esposito, and P. J. Bauer. 2018. “Domain-Specific Anxiety Relates to Children's Math and Spatial Performance.” Developmental Psychology 54, no. 11: 2126–2138. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000605.

[66]	Lawton, C. A. 1994. “Gender Differences in Way-Finding Strategies: Relationship to Spatial Ability and Spatial Anxiety.” Sex Roles 30: 765–779.

[67]	Le Tirant, L., M. Likhanov, M. Mazerolle, et al. 2026. “Self-Perceptions of Aging in Older Adults: A Network Analysis of Clinical and Non-Clinical Samples.” Brain Sciences 16, no. 2: 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16020204.

[68]	Li, T., C. Chen, and X. Zhou. 2023. “How Are Different Math Knowledge Presentations Associated With Math Anxiety?” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1520, no. 1: 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14951.

[69]	Li, T., M. Quintero, M. Galvan, et al. 2023. “The Mediating Role of Attention in the Association Between Math Anxiety and Math Performance: An Eye-Tracking Study.” Journal of Educational Psychology 115, no. 2: 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000759.

[70]	Liebert, R. M., and L. W. Morris. 1967. “Cognitive and Emotional Components of Test Anxiety: A Distinction and Some Initial Data.” Psychological Reports 20, no. 3: 975–978.

[71]	Likhanov, M. 2017. “Maths Anxiety Does Not Moderate The Link Between Spatial And Maths Ability.” 212–226. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2017.12.21.

[72]	Likhanov, M., A. Fillon, M. Demolliens, et al. 2025. “Network analysis of anxiety-related traits in male and female vocational students: Identifying potential targets for educational interventions. PsyArXiv.” https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/53awj_v1.

[73]

Likhanov, M. V., E. S. Tsigeman, K. A. Papageorgiou, A. F. Akmalov, I. A. Sabitov, and Y. V. Kovas. 2021. “Ordinary Extraordinary: Elusive Group Differences in Personality and Psychological Difficulties Between STEM-Gifted Adolescents and Their Peers.” British Journal of Educational Psychology 91, no. 1: 78–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12349.

[74]	Likhanov, M., F. Wang, J. Lyu, L. Wang, and X. Zhou. 2024. “A Special Contribution From Spatial Ability to Math Word Problem Solving: Evidence From Structural Equation Modelling and Network Analysis.” Intelligence 107: 101875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2024.101875.

[75]	Lindberg, S. M., J. S. Hyde, J. L. Petersen, and M. C. Linn. 2010. “New Trends in Gender and Mathematics Performance: A meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 136, no. 6: 1123–1135. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021276.

[76]	Lu, Y., X. Zhang, and X. Zhou. 2023. “Assessing Gender Difference in Mathematics Achievement.” School Psychology International 44: 553–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/01430343221149689.

[77]	Lunardon, M., T. Cerni, and R. I. Rumiati. 2022. “Numeracy Gender Gap in STEM Higher Education: The Role of Neuroticism and Math Anxiety.” Frontiers in Psychology 13: 856405. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.856405.

[78]	Luttenberger, S., S. Wimmer, and M. Paechter. 2018. “Spotlight on Math Anxiety.” Psychology Research and Behavior Management 11: 311–322. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S141421.

[79]

Madjar, N., G. Zalsman, A. Weizman, S. Lev-Ran, and G. Shoval. 2018. “Predictors of Developing Mathematics Anxiety Among Middle-School Students: A 2-Year Prospective Study: DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS ANXIETY.” International Journal of Psychology 53, no. 6: 426–432. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12403.

[80]	Mahak, S., S. Malone, M. Elsherif, C. J. Hand, and K. Morsanyi. 2025. “Academic Anxiety and Cognitive Reflection in Neurodivergence Based on Evidence From a Large International Sample.” Scientific Reports 15: 37522. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-21504-6.

[81]	Malanchini, M., K. Rimfeld, N. G. Shakeshaft, et al. 2017. “The Genetic and Environmental Aetiology of Spatial, Mathematics and General Anxiety.” Scientific Reports 7: 42218. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep42218.

[82]	Malanchini, M., K. Rimfeld, Z. Wang, et al. 2020. “Genetic Factors Underlie the Association Between Anxiety, Attitudes and Performance in Mathematics.” Translational Psychiatry 10: 12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0711-3.

[83]

McCurdy, B. H., M. D. Scozzafava, T. Bradley, R. Matlow, C. F. Weems, and V. G. Carrion. 2023. “Impact of Anxiety and Depression on Academic Achievement Among Underserved School Children: Evidence of Suppressor Effects.” Current Psychology 42, no. 30: 26793–26801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03801-9.

[84]	McEvoy, P. M., H. Watson, E. R. Watkins, and P. Nathan. 2013. “The Relationship Between Worry, Rumination, and Comorbidity: Evidence for Repetitive Negative Thinking as a Transdiagnostic Construct.” Journal of Affective Disorders 151, no. 1: 313–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.06.014.

[85]	Meyer, T. J., M. L. Miller, R. L. Metzger, and T. D. Borkovec. 1990. “Development and Validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 28, no. 6: 487–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6.

[86]	O'brien, R. M. 2007. “A Caution Regarding Rules of Thumb for Variance Inflation Factors.” Quality & Quantity 41, no. 5: 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6.

[87]	Omani-Samani, R., S. Maroufizadeh, A. Ghaheri, and B. Navid. 2018. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) in People With Infertility: A Reliability and Validity Study.” Middle East Fertility Society Journal 23, no. 4: 446–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mefs.2018.01.013.

[88]	Osborne, M. S., and D. T. Kenny. 2005. “Development and Validation of a Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for Gifted Adolescent Musicians.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 19, no. 7: 725–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.09.002.

[89]	Owens, M., J. Stevenson, J. A. Hadwin, and R. Norgate. 2012. “Anxiety and Depression in Academic Performance: An Exploration of the Mediating Factors of Worry and Working Memory.” School Psychology International 33, no. 4: 433–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034311427433.

[90]

Papageorgiou, K. A., M. Likhanov, G. Costantini, et al. 2020. “Personality, Behavioral Strengths and Difficulties and Performance of Adolescents With High Achievements in Science, Literature, Art and Sports.” Personality and Individual Differences 160: 109917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109917.

[91]	Păsărelu, C. R., A. Dobrean, R. Balazsi, E. Predescu, R. Şipos, and V. Lupu. 2017. “The Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children: Age, Gender and Clinical Invariance.” Child Psychiatry & Human Development 48, no. 3: 359–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-016-0663-2.

[92]	Pestle, S. L., B. F. Chorpita, and J. Schiffman. 2008. “Psychometric Properties of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children in a Large Clinical Sample.” Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 37, no. 2: 465–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410801955896.

[93]	Peterson, R. A. 1994. “A Meta-Analysis of Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha.” Journal of Consumer Research 21, no. 2: 381. https://doi.org/10.1086/209405.

[94]	Poole, K. L., R. J. Van Lieshout, and L. A. Schmidt. 2017. “Exploring Relations Between Shyness and Social Anxiety Disorder: The Role of Sociability.” Personality and Individual Differences 110: 55–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.020.

[95]	Ramirez, G., E. A. Gunderson, S. C. Levine, and S. L. Beilock. 2012. “Spatial Anxiety Relates to Spatial Abilities as a Function of Working Memory in Children.” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 65, no. 3: 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2011.616214.

[96]	Rankin, J. L., D. J. Lane, F. X. Gibbons, and M. Gerrard. 2004. “Adolescent Self-Consciousness: Longitudinal Age Changes and Gender Differences in Two Cohorts.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 14, no. 1: 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01401001.x.

[97]

Repeykova, V., T. Toivainen, M. Likhanov, K. Van Broekhoven, and Y. Kovas. 2023. “Nothing but Stereotypes? Negligible Sex Differences Across Creativity Measures in Science, Arts, and Sports Adolescent High Achievers.” Journal of Creative Behavior 58, no. 1: 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.623.

[98]	Sasanguie, D., C. Larmuseau, F. Depaepe, and B. R. J. Jansen. 2024. “Anxiety About Mathematics and Reading in Preadolescents Is Domain-Specific.” Journal of Intelligence 12, no. 2: 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12020014.

[99]	Schreiber, J. B., A. Nora, F. K. Stage, E. A. Barlow, and J. M. King. 2006. “Reporting Structural Equation Modeling and Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results: A Review.” Journal of Educational Research 99: 323–338.

[100]

Schultz, L. T., R. G. Heimberg, T. L. Rodebaugh, F. R. Schneier, M. R. Liebowitz, and M. J. Telch. 2006. “The Appraisal of Social Concerns Scale: Psychometric Validation With a Clinical Sample of Patients With Social Anxiety Disorder.” Behavior Therapy 37, no. 4: 392–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.06.001.

[101]

Silverman, W. K., W. Fleisig, B. Rabian, and R. A. Peterson. 1991. “Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index.” Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 20, no. 2: 162–168. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2002_7.

[102]

Silverman, W. K., A. W. Goedhart, P. Barrett, and C. Turner. 2003. “The Facets of Anxiety Sensitivity Represented in the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index: Confirmatory Analyses of Factor Models From Past Studies.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, no. 3: 364–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.3.364.

[103]

Smith, R. E., F. L. Smoll, S. P. Cumming, and J. R. Grossbard. 2006. “Measurement of Multidimensional Sport Performance Anxiety in Children and Adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2.” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 28, no. 4: 479–501. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.28.4.479.

[104]

Spence, T. E., T. D. Blumenthal, and G. A. Brenes. 2012. “Where Have All the Worriers Gone? Temporal Instability of the Abbreviated Penn State Worry Questionnaire Limits Reliable Screening for High Trait Worry.” Psychology 03, no. 11: 940–946. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2012.311141.

[105]

Spielberger, C. D. 1970. “Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Self-Evaluation Questionnaire).”

[106]

Spielberger, C. D. 1972. “Review of Profile of Mood States.” Professional Psychology 3, no. 4: 387–388. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020742.

[107]

Spielberger, C. D. 2012. “State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Adults [Dataset]. American Psychological Association.” https://doi.org/10.1037/t06496-000.

[108]

Spitzer, R. L., K. Kroenke, J. B. W. Williams, and B. Löwe. 2006. “A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7.” Archives of Internal Medicine 166, no. 10: 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092.

[109]

Steinmayr, R., and B. Spinath. 2008. “Sex Differences in School Achievement: What Are the Roles of Personality and Achievement Motivation?” European Journal of Personality 22, no. 3: 185–209. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.676.

[110]

Sternberg, R. J., and J. E. Davidson. 2005. Conceptions of Giftedness. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press.

[111]

Stieff, M. 2013. “Sex Differences in the Mental Rotation of Chemistry Representations.” Journal of Chemical Education 90, no. 2: 165–170. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed300499t.

[112]

Stieff, M., B. L. Dixon, M. Ryu, B. C. Kumi, and M. Hegarty. 2014. “Strategy Training Eliminates Sex Differences in Spatial Problem Solving in a Stem Domain.” Journal of Educational Psychology 106, no. 2: 390–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034823.

[113]

Stieff, M., and D. Uttal. 2015. “How Much Can Spatial Training Improve STEM Achievement?” Educational Psychology Review 27, no. 4: 607–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9304-8.

[114]

Suárez-Pellicioni, M., M. I. Núñez-Peña, and À. Colomé. 2016. “Math Anxiety: A Review of Its Cognitive Consequences, Psychophysiological Correlates, and Brain Bases.” Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 16, no. 1: 3–22. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0370-7.

[115]

Szafranski, D. D., T. L. Barrera, and P. J. Norton. 2012. “Test Anxiety Inventory: 30 Years Later.” Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 25, no. 6: 667–677. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2012.663490.

[116]

Szczygieł, M., and M. Hohol. 2024. “The Gender Gap in Math Anxiety (And in a Link Between Math Anxiety and Math Performance Too) is Not So Salient When Other Anxieties Are Controlled for [Preprint]. PsyArXiv.” https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/5trew.

[117]

Telch, M. J., R. A. Lucas, J. A. J. Smits, M. B. Powers, R. Heimberg, and T. Hart. 2004. “Appraisal of Social Concerns: A Cognitive Assessment Instrument for Social Phobia.” Depression and Anxiety 19, no. 4: 217–224. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20004.

[118]

Tiirikainen, K., H. Haravuori, K. Ranta, R. Kaltiala-Heino, and M. Marttunen. 2019. “Psychometric Properties of the 7-Item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) in a Large Representative Sample of Finnish Adolescents.” Psychiatry Research 272: 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.004.

[119]

Tosto, M. G., K. B. Hanscombe, C. M. A. Haworth, et al. 2014. “Why Do Spatial Abilities Predict Mathematical Performance?” Developmental Science 17, no. 3: 462–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12138.

[120]

Toussaint, A., P. Hüsing, A. Gumz, et al. 2020. “Sensitivity to Change and Minimal Clinically Important Difference of the 7-Item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire (GAD-7).” Journal of Affective Disorders 265: 395–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.032.

[121]

Tsigeman, E. S., M. V. Likhanov, A. V. Budakova, et al. 2023. “Persistent Gender Differences in Spatial Ability, Even in STEM Experts.” Heliyon 9, no. 4: e15247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15247.

[122]

Tsigeman, E., M. Likhanov, L. Kalinnikova, A. Nikulenko, E. Filimonova, and Y. Kovas. 2026. “Why Dysfluent Font Does Not Aid Second Language Learning.” Journal of Experimental Education 94, no. 2: 255–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2024.2446189.

[123]

Tsigeman, E., S. Silas, K. Frieler, et al. 2022. “The Jack and Jill Adaptive Working Memory Task: Construction, Calibration and Validation.” PLoS One 17, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262200.

[124]

Vera-Villarroel, P., K. Celis-Atenas, N. Córdova-Rubio, G. Buela-Casal, and C. D. Spielberger. 2007. “Preliminary Analysis and Normative Data of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) in Adolescent and Adults of Santiago, Chile.” Terapia Psicológica 25, no. 2: 155–162. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-48082007000200006.

[125]

Victor Mbanuzuru, A., R. Uwakwe, C. Sochukwu Anyaoku, et al. 2023. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screening Using Gad-7 Among In-School Adolescents of Anambra State, Nigeria: A Comparative Study Between Urban and Rural Areas.” Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health 17, no. 1: 91. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00637-4.

[126]

Vigneau, F., and S. Cormier. 2008. “The Factor Structure of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: An Alternative View.” Journal of Personality Assessment 90, no. 3: 280–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890701885027.

[127]

Vignoli, E. 2015. “Career Indecision and Career Exploration Among Older French Adolescents: The Specific Role of General Trait Anxiety and Future School and Career Anxiety.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 89: 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.06.005.

[128]

Vilaplana-Pérez, A., A. Pérez-Vigil, A. Sidorchuk, et al. 2021. “Much More Than Just Shyness: The Impact of Social Anxiety Disorder on Educational Performance Across the Lifespan.” Psychological Medicine 51, no. 5: 861–869. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719003908.

[129]

Voyer, D., and S. D. Voyer. 2014. “Gender Differences in Scholastic Achievement: A meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 140, no. 4: 1174–1204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036620.

[130]

Walkenhorst, E., and S. F. Crowe. 2009. “The Effect of State Worry and Trait Anxiety on Working Memory Processes in a Normal Sample.” Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 22, no. 2: 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800801998914.

[131]

Wang, Z., S. A. Hart, Y. Kovas, et al. 2014. “Who Is Afraid of Math? Two Sources of Genetic Variance for Mathematical Anxiety.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 55, no. 9: 1056–1064. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12224.

[132]

Wang, Z., S. L. Lukowski, S. A. Hart, et al. 2015. “Is Math Anxiety Always Bad for Math Learning? The Role of Math Motivation.” Psychological Science 26, no. 12: 1863–1876. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615602471.

[133]

Wang, Z., N. Shakeshaft, K. Schofield, and M. Malanchini. 2018. “Anxiety Is Not Enough to Drive Me Away: A Latent Profile Analysis on Math Anxiety and Math Motivation.” PLoS One 13, no. 2: e0192072. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192072.

[134]

White, E., T. Kolienko, O. Bogdanova, et al. 2024. “Don't Blame the Teacher: ‘Teacher Effects’ in Secondary Education Reflect Complex Classroom-Level and Social Processes.” https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4711830.

[135]

Wigfield, A., and J. L. Meece. 1988. “Math Anxiety in Elementary and Secondary School Students.” Journal of Educational Psychology 80, no. 2: 210–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.2.210.

[136]

Wong, K., Y. R. Lam, and L. Ho. 2002. “The Effects of Schooling on Gender Differences.” British Educational Research Journal 28, no. 6: 827–843. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192022000019080.

[137]

Wong, W. I. 2017. “The Space-Math Link in Preschool Boys and Girls: Importance of Mental Transformation, Targeting Accuracy, and Spatial Anxiety.” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 35, no. 2: 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12161.

[138]

Wu, S. S., M. Barth, H. Amin, V. Malcarne, and V. Menon. 2012. “Math Anxiety in Second and Third Graders and Its Relation to Mathematics Achievement.” Frontiers in Psychology 3: 162. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00162.

[139]

Xie, F., L. Zhang, X. Chen, and Z. Xin. 2020. “Is Spatial Ability Related to Mathematical Ability: A Meta-Analysis.” Educational Psychology Review 32: 113–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09496-y.

[140]

Yan, Z., X. Yu, D. Cheng, C. Ma, and X. Zhou. 2023. “Spatial Ability and Science Achievement More Closely Associated in Eighth-Graders Than in Fourth-Graders: A Large-Scale Study.” International Journal of Science Education 45, no. 11: 873–894. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2023.2175629.

[141]

Yerkes, R. M., and J. D. Dodson. 1908. “The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation.” Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology 18, no. 5: 459–482. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503.

[142]

Yu, X., H. Zhou, P. Sheng, et al. 2023. “Math Anxiety Is More Closely Associated With Math Performance in Female Students Than in Male Students.” Current Psychology 43: 1381–1394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04349-y.

[143]

Yuan, L., F. Kong, Y. Luo, S. Zeng, J. Lan, and X. You. 2019. “Gender Differences in Large-Scale and Small-Scale Spatial Ability: A Systematic Review Based on Behavioral and Neuroimaging Research.” Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 13: 128. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00128.

[144]

Zahn-Waxler, C., E. A. Shirtcliff, and K. Marceau. 2008. “Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence: Gender and Psychopathology.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 4, no. 1: 275–303. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091358.

[145]

Zhang, J., N. Zhao, and Q. P. Kong. 2019. “The Relationship Between Math Anxiety and Math Performance: A Meta-Analytic Investigation.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 1613. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01613.

[146]

Zhban, E. S., M. V. Likhanov, I. M. Zakharov, E. M. Bezrukova, and S. B. Malykh. 2018. “The Role of Mathematical and Trait Anxiety in Mental Fatigue: An EEG Investigation.” Psychology in Russia: State of the Art 11, no. 4: 79–95 Scopus. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2018.0406.