Mapping Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Repetitive Negative Thinking Among Non-Western Undergraduate Students: A Network Analysis

Ka Yan; Nessa Ikani; Cleoputri Yusainy; Melissa G. Guineau; Cilia Witteman; Jan Spijker

doi:10.1002/pchj.70043

Psych Journal ›› 2025, Vol. 14 ›› Issue (5) : 635 -649. DOI: 10.1002/pchj.70043

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Mapping Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Repetitive Negative Thinking Among Non-Western Undergraduate Students: A Network Analysis

Author information +

History +

PDF

Abstract

Most studies on stress have primarily focused on Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic samples, which may differ from populations in non-Western countries in terms of how they think and respond to stress. This study investigated the interplay of stress-related variables, including repetitive negative thinking (RNT), neuroticism, mindful awareness, cognitive control, academic or general stress, anxiety, and depression among Indonesian university undergraduates. Network analyses (association, graphical least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (gLASSO), and relative importance network) were conducted to estimate associations between the aforementioned constructs in 474 undergraduate students in Indonesia. Consistent with the association network, the gLASSO network revealed that general stress and anxiety had the strongest partial association. The relative importance network further demonstrated that general stress and anxiety exhibited the most robust bidirectional predictive relationships. Furthermore, general stress, RNT, and depression emerged as the strongest predictors within the network structure. The centrality indices from the gLASSO network (expected influence, strength, and closeness) identified general stress as the most central node in terms of expected influence and strength. Additionally, RNT and depression showed high strength and closeness values. Similarly, in the relative importance network, RNT, depression, and stress showed the highest outstrength and closeness centrality values. These findings suggest that general stress, anxiety, depression, and RNT are interconnected constructs that play crucial roles in the mental health of non-Western students. Further studies are required to investigate interventions for those constructs tailored to undergraduate students.

Keywords

anxiety / depression / general stress / network analyses / non-western / RNT / students

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Ka Yan, Nessa Ikani, Cleoputri Yusainy, Melissa G. Guineau, Cilia Witteman, Jan Spijker. Mapping Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Repetitive Negative Thinking Among Non-Western Undergraduate Students: A Network Analysis. Psych Journal, 2025, 14(5): 635-649 DOI:10.1002/pchj.70043

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	Ali, M., M. Dhirani, and F. Fawad. 2024. “Impact of Depression on Academic Performance.” Bulletin of Multidisciplinary Studies 1, no. 1: 34-45. https://doi.org/10.48112/bms.v1i1.760.

[2]	Ali, N. M., N. A. Nowshad, K. M. Mansoor, et al. 2019. “Perceived Academic and Psychological Stress Among Adolescents in United Arab Emirates: Role of Gender, Age, Depression, and High Expectation of Parents.” Psychiatria Danubina 29, no. 3: 331-337.

[3]	Amestoy, M. E., D. D'Amico, and A. J. Fiocco. 2023. “Neuroticism and Stress in Older Adults: The Buffering Role of Self-Esteem.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 12: 6102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20126102.

[4]	Anniko, M.2018. Stuck on Repeat: Adolescent Stress and the Role of Repetitive Negative Thinking and Cognitive Avoidance. Orebro University.

[5]	Armstrong, L., and K. A. Rimes. 2016. “Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Neuroticism (Stress Vulnerability): A Pilot Randomized Study.” Behavior Therapy 47, no. 3: 287-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2015.12.005.

[6]	Asif, S., A. Mudassar, T. Z. Shahzad, M. Raouf, and T. Pervaiz. 2020. “Frequency of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Among University Students.” Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences 36, no. 5: 971-976. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.5.1873.

[7]	Awadalla, S., E. B. Davies, and C. Glazebrook. 2020. “A Longitudinal Cohort Study to Explore the Relationship Between Depression, Anxiety and Academic Performance Among Emirati University Students.” BMC Psychiatry 20: 448. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02854-z.

[8]	Babicka-Wirkus, A., L. Wirkus, K. Stasiak, and P. Kozłowski. 2021. “University Students' Strategies of Coping With Stress During the Coronavirus Pandemic: Data From Poland.” PLoS One 16, no. 7: e0255041. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255041.

[9]	Barnhofer, T., and T. Chittka. 2010. “Cognitive Reactivity Mediates the Relationship Between Neuroticism and Depression.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 48, no. 4: 275-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.005.

[10]

Batty, G. D., A. M. McIntosh, T. C. Russ, I. J. Deary, and C. R. Gale. 2016. “Psychological Distress, Neuroticism, and Cause-Specific Mortality: Early Prospective Evidence From UK Biobank.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 70, no. 11: 1136-1139. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2016-207267.

[11]	Bibi, A., M. Lin, X. C. Zhang, and J. Margraf. 2020. “Psychometric Properties and Measurement Invariance of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) Across Cultures.” International Journal of Psychology 55, no. 6: 916-925. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12671.

[12]

Birtel, M. D., and B. L. Mitchell. 2023. “Cross-Cultural Differences in Depression Between White British and South Asians: Causal Attributions, Stigma by Association, Discriminatory Potential.” Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 96, no. 1: 101-116. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12428.

[13]	Borkovec, T. D., W. J. Ray, and S. Joachim. 1998. “Worry: A Cognitive Phenomenon Intimately Linked to Affective, Physiological, and Interpersonal Behavioral Processes.” Cognitive Therapy and Research 22, no. 6: 561-576.

[14]	Borsboom, D., and A. O. J. Cramer. 2013. “Network Analysis: An Integrative Approach to the Structure of Psychopathology.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 9: 91-121. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185608.

[15]	Borsboom, D., D. J. Robinaugh, M. Rhemtulla, and A. O. J. Cramer. 2018. “Robustness and Replicability of Psychopathology Networks.” World Psychiatry 17, no. 2: 143-144. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20515.

[16]	Bottemanne, H., O. Morlaas, A. Claret, T. Sharot, P. Fossati, and L. Schmidt. 2022. “Evaluation of Early Ketamine Effects on Belief-Updating Biases in Patients With Treatment-Resistant Depression.” JAMA Psychiatry 79, no. 11: 1124-1132. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.2996.

[17]	Bringmann, L. F., T. Elmer, S. Epskamp, et al. 2019. “What Do Centrality Measures Measure in Psychological Networks?” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 128: 892-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000446.

[18]	Brown, K. W., and R. Ryan. 2003. “The Benefit of Being Present: Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84: 822-848.

[19]	Burtscher, J., M. Niedermeier, K. Hüfner, et al. 2022. “The Interplay of Hypoxic and Mental Stress: Implications for Anxiety and Depressive Disorders.” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 138: 104718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104718.

[20]	Chen, B., W. Wang, and S. Yang. 2024. “The Relationship Between Academic Stress and Depression Among College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study From China.” BMC Psychiatry 24: 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05506-8.

[21]	Cheung, R. Y. M., and I. J. K. Park. 2010. “Anger Suppression, Interdependent Self-Construal, and Depression Among Asian American and European American College Students.” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 16, no. 4: 517-525. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020655.

[22]	Constantin, M. A., N. K. Schuurman, and J. K. Vermunt. 2023. “A General Monte Carlo Method for Sample Size Analysis in the Context of Network Models.” Psychological Methods. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000555.

[23]	Cramer, A. O. J., L. J. Waldorp, H. L. J. Van Der Maas, and D. Borsboom. 2010. “Comorbidity: A Network Perspective.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33, no. 2-3: 137-150. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X09991567.

[24]	Davis, D. M. 2018. “Repetitive Negative Thinking Styles and First-Semester Academic Performance: Psychological Risk and Resilience Among Low-Income College Students.” [Doctoral dissertation, University of Louisville]. https://doi.org/10.18297/etd/3137.

[25]	De Kloet, E. R., M. Joëls, and F. Holsboer. 2005. “Stress and the Brain: From Adaptation to Disease.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6, no. 6: 463-475. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1683.

[26]	de Lissnyder, E., E. H. W. Koster, N. Derakshan, and R. de Raedt. 2010. “The Association Between Depressive Symptoms and Executive Control Impairments in Response to Emotional and Non-Emotional Information.” Cognition and Emotion 24, no. 2: 264-280. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930903378354.

[27]

De Raedt, R., and E. H. W. Koster. 2010. “Understanding Vulnerability for Depression From a Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective: A Reappraisal of Attentional Factors and a New Conceptual Framework.” Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 10, no. 1: 50-70. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.10.1.50.

[28]	Deng, Y., J. Cherian, N. U. N. Khan, et al. 2022. “Family and Academic Stress and Their Impact on Students' Depression Level and Academic Performance.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 13: 869337. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.869337.

[29]	Denis, M. S. 2021. “Evaluating the Relationship Between Mindfulness and Response to a Single Session Repetitive Negative Thinking Intervention.” [Doctoral dissertation, University of New Jersey].

[30]	Ehring, T., and E. R. Watkins. 2008. “Repetitive Negative Thinking as a Transdiagnostic Process.” International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 1, no. 3: 192-205. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.3.192.

[31]

Ehring, T., U. Zetsche, K. Weidacker, K. Wahl, S. Schönfeld, and A. Ehlers. 2011. “The Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ): Validation of a Content-Independent Measure of Repetitive Negative Thinking.” Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 42, no. 2: 225-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.12.003.

[32]

El-Matury, H. J., F. Lestari, and B. Besral. 2018. “Depression, Anxiety and Stress Among Undergraduate Students in Jakarta: Examining Scores of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale According to Origin and Residency.” Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development 9, no. 2: 290-295. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-5506.2018.00135.3.

[33]	Epskamp, S. 2016. “Regularized Gaussian Psychological Networks: Brief Report on the Performance of Extended BIC Model Selection.” arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.05771.

[34]	Epskamp, S., D. Borsboom, and E. I. Fried. 2018. “Estimating Psychological Networks and Their Accuracy: A Tutorial Paper.” Behavior Research Methods 50, no. 1: 195-212. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0862-1.

[35]	Epskamp, S., A. O. J. Cramer, L. J. Waldorp, V. D. Schmittmann, and D. Borsboom. 2012. “Qgraph: Network Visualizations of Relationships in Psychometric Data.” Journal of Statistical Software 48, no. 4: 1-18. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i04.

[36]	Epskamp, S., and E. I. Fried. 2018. “A Tutorial on Regularized Partial Correlation Networks.” Psychological Methods 23, no. 4: 617-634. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000167.

[37]	Epskamp, S., J. Kruis, and M. Marsman. 2017. “Estimating Psychopathological Networks: Be Careful What You Wish for.” PLoS One 12, no. 6: e0179891. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179891.

[38]	Evans, D. E., and M. K. Rothbart. 2007. “Developing a Model for Adult Temperament.” Journal of Research in Personality 41, no. 4: 868-888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.11.002.

[39]	Ferrari, M., S. Allan, C. Arnold, et al. 2022. “Digital Interventions for Psychological Well-Being in University Students: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Medical Internet Research 24, no. 9: e39686. https://doi.org/10.2196/39686.

[40]	Firth, A., S. Sütterlin, and R. Lugo. 2023. “The Role of Trait and State Mindfulness in Cognitive Performance of Male Adolescents.” Psychology Research and Behavior Management 16: 3939-3948. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S409737.

[41]	Friedman, J., T. Hastie, and R. Tibshirani. 2008. “Sparse Inverse Covariance Estimation With the Graphical Lasso.” Biostatistics 9, no. 3: 432-441. https://doi.org/10.1093/biostatistics/kxm045.

[42]	Fruchterman, T. M. J., and E. M. Reingold. 1991. “Graph Drawing by Force-Directed Placement.” Software: Practice and Experience 21, no. 11: 1129-1164. https://doi.org/10.1002/spe.4380211102.

[43]	Gabrys, R. L., N. Tabri, H. Anisman, and K. Matheson. 2018. “Cognitive Control and Flexibility in the Context of Stress and Depressive Symptoms: The Cognitive Control and Flexibility Questionnaire.” Frontiers in Psychology 9: 2219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02219.

[44]	Ganesan, K., A. Thompson, C. R. Smid, et al. 2024. “Cognitive Control Training With Domain-General Response Inhibition Does Not Change Children's Brains or Behavior.” Nature Neuroscience 27, no. 7: 1364-1375. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-024-01672-w.

[45]	Gavazzi, G., C. Noferini, V. Benedetti, et al. 2023. “Cultural Differences in Inhibitory Control: An ALE Meta-Analysis.” Brain Sciences 13, no. 6: 907. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13060907.

[46]	Groen, R. N., O. Ryan, J. T. W. Wigman, et al. 2020. “Comorbidity Between Depression and Anxiety: Assessing the Role of Bridge Mental States in Dynamic Psychological Networks.” BMC Medicine 18: 308. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01738-z.

[47]	Grundy, J. G., S. Krishnamoorthy, and J. M. Shedden. 2018. “Cognitive Control as a Function of Trait Mindfulness.” Journal of Cognitive Enhancement 2, no. 3: 298-304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0065-4.

[48]	Guineau, M. G., N. Ikani, M. Rinck, et al. 2023. “Anhedonia as a Transdiagnostic Symptom Across Psychological Disorders: A Network Approach.” Psychological Medicine 53: 3908-3919. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722000575.

[49]

Gustavson, D. E., A. du Pont, M. A. Whisman, and A. Miyake. 2018. “Evidence for Transdiagnostic Repetitive Negative Thinking and Its Association With Rumination, Worry, and Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: A Commonality Analysis.” Collabra: Psychology 4, no. 1: 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.128.

[50]	Hajek, A., B. Kretzler, and H.-H. Konig. 2020. “Personality, Healthcare Use and Costs— A Systematic Review.” Health 8: 329. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030329.

[51]	Hamamura, T., Z. Meijer, S. J. Heine, K. Kamaya, and I. Hori. 2009. “Approach-Avoidance Motivation and Information Processing: A Cross-Cultural Analysis.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35, no. 4: 454-462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208329512.

[52]	Haslbeck, J. M. B., and L. J. Waldorp. 2018. “How Well Do Network Models Predict Observations? On the Importance of Predictability in Network Models.” Behavior Research Methods 50, no. 2: 853-861. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0910-x.

[53]	Hernández-Torrano, D., L. Ibrayeva, J. Sparks, et al. 2020. “Mental Health and Well-Being of University Students: A Bibliometric Mapping of the Literature.” Frontiers in Psychology 11: 1226. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01226.

[54]	Hertel, P.2015. “Cognition in Emotional Disorders: An Abundance of Habit and a Dearth of Control.” In Remembering: Attributions, Processes, and Control in Human Memory, edited by D. S. Lindsay, C. M. Kelley, A. P. Yonelinas, and H. L. Roediger, 322-335. Psychology Press.

[55]	Hevey, D.2018. “Network Analysis: A Brief Overview and Tutorial.” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine 6, no. 1: 301-328. https://doi.org/10.1080/21642850.2018.1521283.

[56]	Hirsch, C. R., and A. Mathews. 2012. “A Cognitive Model of Pathological Worry.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 50, no. 10: 636-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.06.007.

[57]

Hoorelbeke, K., E. H. W. Koster, M. A. Vanderhasselt, S. Callewaert, and I. Demeyer. 2015. “The Influence of Cognitive Control Training on Stress Reactivity and Rumination in Response to a Lab Stressor and Naturalistic Stress.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 69: 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2015.03.010.

[58]	Hoorelbeke, K., I. Marchetti, M. De Schryver, and E. H. W. Koster. 2016. “The Interplay Between Cognitive Risk and Resilience Factors in Remitted Depression: A Network Analysis.” Journal of Affective Disorders 195: 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.02.001.

[59]	Ibrahim, A. S.1979. “Extraversion and Neuroticism Across Cultures.” Psychological Reports 44: 799-803.

[60]	John, O. P., E. M. Donahue, and R. L. Kentle. 1991. The Big-Five Inventory-Version 4a and 54. Berkeley Institute of Personality and Social Research, University of California.

[61]	Jones, P. J., P. Mair, and R. J. McNally. 2018. “Visualizing Psychological Networks: A Tutorial in R.” Frontiers in Psychology 9: 1742. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01742.

[62]	Jones, P. J., and D. R. Robinaugh. 2021. “An Answer to “So What?” Implications of Network Theory for Research and Practice.” Focus 19, no. 2: 204-210. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20200050.

[63]	Josefsson, T., A. Ivarsson, M. Lindwall, et al. 2017. “Mindfulness Mechanisms in Sports: Mediating Effects of Rumination and Emotion Regulation on Sport-Specific Coping.” Mindfulness 8, no. 5: 1354-1363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0711-4.

[64]	Kalin, N. H.2020. “The Critical Relationship Between Anxiety and Depression.” American Journal of Psychiatry 177, no. 5: 365-367. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20030305.

[65]	Karl, J. A., F. N. Johnson, L. Bucci, and R. Fischer. 2022. “In Search of Mindfulness: A Review and Reconsideration of Cultural Dynamics From a Cognitive Perspective.” Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 52, no. 2: 168-191. https://doi.org/10.1080/03036758.2021.1915804.

[66]

Karyotaki, E., P. Cuijpers, Y. Albor, et al. 2020. “Sources of Stress and Their Associations With Mental Disorders Among College Students: Results of the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Initiative.” Frontiers in Psychology 11: 1759. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01759.

[67]	Keng, S. L., E. L. Y. Tan, T. A. Eisenlohr-Moul, and M. J. Smoski. 2017. “Effects of Mindfulness, Reappraisal, and Suppression on Sad Mood and Cognitive Resources.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 91: 33-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.01.006.

[68]	Khan, S. A., and R. A. Khan. 2017. “Chronic Stress Leads to Anxiety.” Annals of Psychiatry and Mental Health 5, no. 1: 1091.

[69]	Kong, F., X. Wang, and J. Zhao. 2014. “Dispositional Mindfulness and Life Satisfaction: The Role of Core Self-Evaluations.” Personality and Individual Differences 56, no. 1: 165-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.09.002.

[70]	König, N., S. Steber, A. Borowski, H. R. Bliem, and S. Rossi. 2021. “Neural Processing of Cognitive Control in an Emotionally Neutral Context in Anxiety Patients.” Brain Sciences 11, no. 5: 543. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11050543.

[71]	Kotera, Y., A. Kirkman, J. Beaumont, et al. 2023. “Self-Compassion During COVID-19 in Non-WEIRD Countries: A Narrative Review.” Health 11, no. 14: 2016. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11142016.

[72]	Kotera, Y., J. Lieu, A. Kirkman, et al. 2022. “Mental Wellbeing of Indonesian Students: Mean Comparison With UK Students and Relationships With Self-Compassion and Academic Engagement.” Health 10, no. 8: 1439. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10081439.

[73]	Kudva, K. G., S. El Hayek, A. K. Gupta, et al. 2020. “Stigma in Mental Illness: Perspective From Eight Asian Nations.” Asia-Pacific Psychiatry 12, no. 2: e12380. https://doi.org/10.1111/appy.12380.

[74]	Larson, M. J., P. R. Steffen, and M. Primosch. 2013. “The Impact of a Brief Mindfulness Meditation Intervention on Cognitive Control and Error-Related Performance Monitoring.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7: 308. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00308.

[75]	Lee, H., T. Masuda, K. Ishii, Y. Yasuda, and Y. Ohtsubo. 2023. “Cultural Differences in the Perception of Daily Stress Between European Canadian and Japanese Undergraduate Students.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 49, no. 4: 571-584. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211070360.

[76]	Lee, K. C. 2023. “Trait Mindfulness and Perceived Attention Control Among College Students.” [Doctoral dissertation, University Grand Canyon].

[77]

LeMoult, J., R. E. McCabe, A. Hamedani, and K. L. Yoon. 2020. “Cognitive Control and Cortisol Response to Stress in Generalised Anxiety Disorder: A Study of Working Memory Capacity With Negative and Neutral Distractors.” Cognition and Emotion 34, no. 4: 800-806. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1666798.

[78]	Li, Y., N. Yang, Y. Zhang, W. Xu, and L. Cai. 2021. “The Relationship Among Trait Mindfulness, Attention, and Working Memory in Junior School Students Under Different Stressful Situations.” Frontiers in Psychology 12: 558690. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558690.

[79]	Liao, A., R. Walker, T. J. Carmody, et al. 2019. “Anxiety and Anhedonia in Depression: Associations With Neuroticism and Cognitive Control.” Journal of Affective Disorders 245: 1070-1078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.072.

[80]	Lin, Y. M., and F. S. Chen. 2009. “Academic Stress Inventory of Students at Universities and Colleges of Technology.” World Transactions on Engineering and Technology Education 7, no. 2: 157-162.

[81]	Lovibond, S. H., and P. Lovibond. 1995. Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales. 2nd ed. Psychology Foundation.

[82]	Macedo, A., M. J. Soares, A. P. Amaral, et al. 2015. “Repetitive Negative Thinking Mediates the Association Between Perfectionism and Psychological Distress.” Personality and Individual Differences 72: 220-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.024.

[83]	Marthoenis, M., I. Meutia, L. Fathiariani, and H. Sofyan. 2018. “Prevalence of Depression and Anxiety Among College Students Living in a Disaster-Prone Region.” Alexandria Journal of Medicine 54, no. 4: 337-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajme.2018.07.002.

[84]	Matthews, M., T. L. Webb, R. Shafir, M. Snow, and G. Sheppes. 2021. “Identifying the Determinants of Emotion Regulation Choice: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis.” Cognition and Emotion 35, no. 6: 1056-1084. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1945538.

[85]	Nada, Q., I. Herdiana, and F. Andriani. 2022. “Testing the Validity and Reliability of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS)-21 Instrument for Individuals With Psychodermatology.” Psikohumaniora 7, no. 2: 153-168. https://doi.org/10.21580/pjpp.v7i2.11802.

[86]	Naik, D. N.2003. “Diagnostic Methods for Univariate and Multivariate Normal Data.” In Handbook of Statistics, edited by R. Khattree and C. R. Rao, vol. 22, 957-993. Elsevier.

[87]

Nandarathana, N., and J. K. Ranjan. 2024. “The Efficacy and Durability of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy in the Treatment of Anxiety and Depressive Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine 47: 214-222. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176241249375.

[88]	Nolen-Hoeksema, S.1991. “Responses to Depression and Their Effects on the Duration of Depressive Episodes.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100, no. 4: 569-582.

[89]	Nolen-Hoeksema, S., B. E. Wisco, and S. Lyubomirsky. 2008. “Rethinking Rumination.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 3, no. 5: 400-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x.

[90]	Özdin, S., and Ş. B. Özdin. 2020. “Levels and Predictors of Anxiety, Depression and Health Anxiety During COVID-19 Pandemic in Turkish Society: The Importance of Gender.” International Journal of Social Psychiatry 66, no. 5: 504-511. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020927051.

[91]	Palmer, A., and S. Rodger. 2009. “Mindfulness, Stress, and Coping Among University Students.” Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy/Revue Canadienne de Counseling et de Psychothérapie 50, no. 43: 198-212.

[92]	Panda, S., A. K. Dash, R. Santhakumari, N. Yasmeen, A. R. O. Siddique, and A. D. Y. Khan. 2017. “Depression, Anxiety and Stress Among Junior Science College Students.” International Journal of Health Sciences and Research 7: 71-75.

[93]

Parmentier, F. B. R., M. García-Toro, J. García-Campayo, A. M. Yañez, P. Andrés, and M. Gili. 2019. “Mindfulness and Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety in the General Population: The Mediating Roles of Worry, Rumination, Reappraisal and Suppression.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 506. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00506.

[94]	Paul, N. A., S. J. Stanton, J. M. Greeson, M. J. Smoski, and L. Wang. 2013. “Psychological and Neural Mechanisms of Trait Mindfulness in Reducing Depression Vulnerability.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 8, no. 1: 56-64. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss070.

[95]	Peixoto, M. M., and O. Cunha. 2022. “Repetitive Negative Thinking, Rumination, Depressive Symptoms and Life Satisfaction: A Cross-Sectional Mediation Analysis.” International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy 22, no. 2: 211-221.

[96]	Perkins, A. M., D. Arnone, J. Smallwood, and D. Mobbs. 2015. “Thinking Too Much: Self-Generated Thought as the Engine of Neuroticism.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 19, no. 9: 492-498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.003.

[97]	Peters, E. M., A. John, R. Bowen, M. Baetz, and L. Balbuena. 2018. “Neuroticism and Suicide in a General Population Cohort: Results From the UK Biobank Project.” BJPsych Open 4, no. 2: 62-68. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2017.12.

[98]	Petrocchi, N., and C. Ottaviani. 2016. “Mindfulness Facets Distinctively Predict Depressive Symptoms After Two Years: The Mediating Role of Rumination.” Personality and Individual Differences 93: 92-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.017.

[99]	Polizzi, C., A. Gautam, and S. J. Lynn. 2018. “Trait Mindfulness: A Multifaceted Evaluation.” Imagination, Cognition and Personality 38, no. 2: 106-138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236618774321.

[100]

Pulopulos, M. M., K. Hoorelbeke, S. Vandenbroucke, K. Van Durme, J. M. Hooley, and R. De Raedt. 2022. “The Interplay Between Self-Esteem, Expectancy, Cognitive Control, Rumination, and the Experience of Stress: A Network Analysis.” Current Psychology 42, no. 18: 15403-15411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02840-6.

[101]

Purnamasari, Y., and D. Cahyani. 2019. “The Effect of Neuroticism on Psychological Distress in Medical Students.” In 4th ASEAN Conference on Psychology, Counselling, and Humanities, Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research (ASSEHR), vol. 304, 131-133. Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/acpch-18.2019.33.

[102]

Putri, A. K., A. N. F. Yahya, and A. R. Saputra. 2022. “Indonesian Faculty Barriers in Providing Help to College Students in Distress.” Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 23, no. 4: 929-944. https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025119880821.

[103]

R Core Team. “R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.” R Foundation for Statistical Computing. 2020.

[104]

Raes, F., and J. M. G. Williams. 2010. “The Relationship Between Mindfulness and Uncontrollability of Ruminative Thinking.” Mindfulness 1, no. 4: 199-203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-010-0021-6.

[105]

Ramdhani, N.2012. “Adaptasi Bahasa Dan Budaya Inventori Big Five.” Jurnal Psikologi 39, no. 2: 189-207.

[106]

Ramón-Arbués, E., V. Gea-Caballero, J. M. Granada-López, R. Juárez-Vela, B. Pellicer-García, and I. Antón-Solanas. 2020. “The Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety and Stress and Their Associated Factors in College Students.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 19: 7001. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197001.

[107]

Raphiphatthana, B., P. E. Jose, and P. Chobthamkit. 2019. “The Association Between Mindfulness and Grit: An East vs. West Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Mindfulness 10, no. 1: 146-158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0961-9.

[108]

Robinaugh, D. J., A. J. Millner, and R. J. McNally. 2016. “Identifying Highly Influential Nodes in the Complicated Grief Network.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 125, no. 6: 747-757. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000181.

[109]

Robison, M. K., K. I. Gath, and N. Unsworth. 2017. “The Neurotic Wandering Mind: An Individual Differences Investigation of Neuroticism, Mind-Wandering, and Executive Control.” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 70, no. 4: 649-663. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1145706.

[110]

Rood, L., J. Roelofs, S. M. Bögels, and L. B. Alloy. 2010. “Dimensions of Negative Thinking and the Relations With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety in Children and Adolescents.” Cognitive Therapy and Research 34, no. 4: 333-342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9261-y.

[111]

Sapp, M., F. Obiakor, A. J. Gregas, and S. Scholze. 2007. “Mahalanobis Distance: A Multivariate of Effect in Hypnosis Research.” Sleep and Hypnosis 9, no. 2: 1-5.

[112]

Segerstrom, S. C., J. C. I. Tsao, L. E. Alden, and M. G. Craske. 2000. “Worry and Rumination: Repetitive Thought as a Concomitant and Predictor of Negative Mood.” Cognitive Therapy and Research 24, no. 6: 671-688. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005587311498.

[113]

Shokrkon, A., and E. Nicoladis. 2021. “How Personality Traits of Neuroticism and Extroversion Predict the Effects of the COVID-19 on the Mental Health of Canadians.” PLoS One 16, no. 5: e251097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251097.

[114]

Snyder, H. R., and B. L. Hankin. 2016. “Spiraling out of Control: Stress Generation and Subsequent Rumination Mediate the Link Between Poorer Cognitive Control and Internalizing Psychopathology.” Clinical Psychological Science 4, no. 6: 1047-1064. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702616633157.

[115]

Song, H., J. S. Chan, and C. Ryan. 2024. “Differences and Similarities in the Use of Nine Emotion Regulation Strategies in Western and East-Asian Cultures: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 55: 865-885. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221241285006.

[116]

Spinhoven, P., A. M. van Hemert, and B. W. Penninx. 2018. “Repetitive Negative Thinking as a Predictor of Depression and Anxiety: A Longitudinal Cohort Study.” Journal of Affective Disorders 241: 216-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.037.

[117]

Stamatis, C. A., N. A. Puccetti, C. J. Charpentier, A. S. Heller, and K. R. Timpano. 2020. “Repetitive Negative Thinking Following Exposure to a Natural Stressor Prospectively Predicts Altered Stress Responding and Decision-Making in the Laboratory.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 129: 103609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103609.

[118]

Suls, J., and R. Martin. 2005. “The Daily Life of the Garden-Variety Neurotic: Reactivity, Stressor Exposure, Mood Spillover, and Maladaptive Coping.” Journal of Personality 73, no. 6: 1485-1510. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00356.x.

[119]

Tichenor, S. E., K. L. Gerwin, and B. Walsh. 2023. “Repetitive Negative Thinking in Adolescents Who Stutter.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 66, no. 9: 3290-3306. https://doi.org/10.1044/2023_JSLHR-23-00147.

[120]

Todd, J., L. Notebaert, and P. J. F. Clarke. 2022. “The Association Between Self-Report and Behavioural Measure of Attentional Control: Evidence of no Relationship Between ACS Scores and Antisaccade Performance.” Personality and Individual Differences 184: 111168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111168.

[121]

Valadez, E. A. 2015. “Mindfulness Predicts Efficient Cognitive Control: An EEG Study of Theta-Band Neural Oscillations.” [Master's Thesis, University of Delaware].

[122]

van Borkulo, C. D., L. Boschloo, J. J. Kossakowski, et al. 2023. “Comparing Network Structures on Three Aspects: A Permutation Test.” Psychological Methods 28, no. 6: 1273-1285. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000476.

[123]

Vargas-Nieto, J. C., I. Montorio, C. Gantiva, and M. Froufe. 2022. “Dispositional Mindfulness Is Associated With Less Cognitive Fusion and Better Effortful Control in Young People: The Mediating Role of Repetitive Negative Thinking.” Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología 54: 205-213. https://doi.org/10.14349/rlp.2022.v54.23.

[124]

Widiger, T. A., and J. R. Oltmanns. 2017. “Neuroticism Is a Fundamental Domain of Personality With Enormous Public Health Implications.” World Psychiatry 16, no. 2: 144-145. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20411.

[125]

Wu, D., L. Yu, T. Yang, et al. 2020. “The Impacts of Uncertainty Stress on Mental Disorders of Chinese College Students: Evidence From a Nationwide Study.” Frontiers in Psychology 11: 243. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00243.

[126]

Yusainy, C., I. Ilhamuddin, A. H. Ramli, et al. 2018. “Between Here-and-Now and Hereafter: Mindfulness Sebagai Pengawal Orientasi Terhadap Kehidupan Dan Ketakutan Terhadap Kematian.” Jurnal Psikologi 17, no. 1: 18-30. https://doi.org/10.14710/jp.17.1.18-30.

[127]

Zagaria, A., A. Ballesio, M. Vacca, and C. Lombardo. 2023. “Repetitive Negative Thinking as a Central Node Between Psychopathological Domains: A Network Analysis.” International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 16, no. 2: 143-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41811-023-00162-4.

[128]

Zhuang, K., M. Bi, Y. Li, et al. 2017. “A Distinction Between Two Instruments Measuring Dispositional Mindfulness and the Correlations Between Those Measurements and the Neuroanatomical Structure.” Scientific Reports 7: 6252. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-06599-w.