A Systematic Review of Empirical Studies on Situation Awareness: Perspectives From the Interaction Among Humans, Machines, and the Task Environment

Abstract

Situational awareness (SA) refers to “knowing what is going on” in a situation. As an essential concept originating in aviation literature approximately 40 years ago, SA has demonstrated significant potential and has since been extended across various fields, leading to a growing body of research. With its expanding application in diverse fields, SA literature has become increasingly fragmented. This study systematically reviews previous empirical studies to provide a structured categorization and comprehensive analysis of SA applications, contributing to the advancement of SA research. Our search identified 2860 empirical studies on SA published between 1975 and 2024, spanning 11 major fields, including aviation, driving, power systems, traffic and transportation, health care and medicine, emergency management, military, training, sport, system autonomy, and network information and communication. We examined the specific characteristics of SA in these fields and, by integrating the characteristics with human factors/ergonomics principles, developed a comprehensive framework. Based on this framework, we categorized the SA research into three groups: the ergonomics-centered group (e.g., aviation), the human-centered group (e.g., sports), and the machine-centered group (e.g., system autonomy). Our findings have the potential to foster collaboration among researchers across diverse fields, facilitating the expansion and integration of SA research through cross-referencing theories, models, and methodologies.

Keywords

ergonomics / human factors/ergonomics / human-computer interface / situation awareness

References

[1] Anya, O., and H. Tawfik. 2017. “Designing for Practice-Based Context-Awareness in Ubiquitous e-Health Environments.” Computers and Electrical Engineering 61: 312-326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2016.08.012.

[2] Artman, H., and C. Garbis. 1998. “Situation Awareness as Distributed Cognition.” In Proceedings of ECCE (Vol. 98, No. 6). Limerick.

[3] Arthur, J. T. J. , L. J. Prinzel III, K. J. Shelton, et al. 2009. “Synthetic Vision Enhanced Surface Operations With Head-Worn Display for Commercial Aircraft.” International Journal of Aviation Psychology 19, no. 2: 158-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508410902766507.

[4] Ashtari Talkhestani, B., N. Jazdi, W. Schlögl, and M. Weyrich. 2018. “A Concept in Synchronization of Virtual Production System With Real Factory Based on Anchor-Point Method.” Procedia CIRP 67: 13-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2017.12.168.

[5] Bisht, S., H. S. Bharati, S. B. Taneja, and P. Bedi. 2018. “Command Agent Belief Architecture to Support Commander Decision Making in Military Simulation.” Defence Science Journal 68, no. 1: 46-53. https://doi.org/10.14429/dsj.68.11375.

[6] Boudreault, L., M. Hébert-Lavoie, K. Ung, et al. 2023. “Situation Awareness-Oriented Dashboard in ICUs in Support of Resource Management in Time of Pandemics.” IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine 11: 151-160. https://doi.org/10.1109/JTEHM.2023.3241215.

[7] Bourbousson, J., G. Poizat, J. Saury, and C. Seve. 2011. “Description of Dynamic Shared Knowledge: An Exploratory Study During a Competitive Team Sports Interaction.” Ergonomics 54, no. 2: 120-138. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2010.544763.

[8] Bourbousson, J., M. R'Kiouak, and D. W. Eccles. 2015. “The Dynamics of Team Coordination: A Social Network Analysis as a Window to Shared Awareness.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 24, no. 5: 742-760. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432x.2014.1001977.

[9] Bracq, M. S., E. Michinov, M. le Duff, B. Arnaldi, V. Gouranton, and P. Jannin. 2021. “Training Situational Awareness for Scrub Nurses: Error Recognition in a Virtual Operating Room.” Nurse Education in Practice 53: 103056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2021.103056.

[10] Brady, P. W., and L. M. Goldenhar. 2014. “A Qualitative Study Examining the Influences on Situation Awareness and the Identification, Mitigation and Escalation of Recognised Patient Risk.” BMJ Quality and Safety 23, no. 2: 153-161. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2012-001747.

[11] Camblor, B., D. Daney, L. Joseph, and J. M. Salotti. 2024. “Attention Sharing Handling Through Projection Capability Within Human-Robot Collaboration.” International Journal of Social Robotics 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-024-01101-9.

[12] Cave, K. M., B. Thompson, K. Lee, and J. G. Casali. 2020. “Optimisation of an Auditory Azimuth Localisation Training Protocol for Military Service Members.” International Journal of Audiology 59, no. S1: S3-S11. https://doi.org/10.1080/14992027.2019.1691747.

[13] Cha, J. S., N. E. Anton, T. Mizota, et al. 2019. “Use of Non-Technical Skills Can Predict Medical Student Performance in Acute Care Simulated Scenarios.” American Journal of Surgery 217, no. 2: 323-328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2018.09.028.

[14] Clasing, J. E., and J. G. Casali. 2014. “Warfighter Auditory Situation Awareness: Effects of Augmented Hearing Protection/Enhancement Devices and TCAPS for Military Ground Combat Applications.” International Journal of Audiology 53, no. sup2: S43-S52. https://doi.org/10.3109/14992027.2013.860489.

[15] Chapman, M. T., P. Temby, M. Crane, et al. 2021. “Team Resilience Emergence: Perspectives and Experiences of Military Personnel Selected for Elite Military Training.” European Journal of Social Psychology 51, no. 6: 951-968. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2795.

[16] Chen, J. Y., S. G. Lakhmani, K. Stowers, A. R. Selkowitz, J. L. Wright, and M. Barnes. 2018. “Situation Awareness-Based Agent Transparency and Human-Autonomy Teaming Effectiveness.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 19, no. 3: 259-282. https://doi.org/10.1080/1463922X.2017.1315750.

[17] Chen, S., Z. Jian, Y. Huang, Y. Chen, Z. Zhou, and N. Zheng. 2019. “Autonomous Driving: Cognitive Construction and Situation Understanding.” Science China Information Sciences 62, no. 8: 81101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11432-018-9850-9.

[18] Cnossen, A. R. M., B. M. Maarsingh, P. Jerčić, and I. Rosier. 2023. “The Effects of Stress Mindset, Manipulated Through Serious Game Intervention, on Performance and Situation Awareness of Elite Female Football Players in the Context of a Match: An Experimental Study.” Games for Health Journal 12, no. 2: 158-167. https://doi.org/10.1089/g4h.2022.0209.

[19] Cooper, S., B. Bulle, M. A. Biro, et al. 2012. “Managing Women With Acute Physiological Deterioration: Student Midwives Performance in a Simulated Setting.” Women and Birth 25, no. 3: E27-E36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2011.08.009.

[20] Dahn, N., S. Fuchs, and H. M. Gross. 2018. “Situation Awareness for Autonomous Agents.” In 27th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN), 666-671. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ROMAN.2018.8525511.

[21] Danial, S. N., J. Smith, F. Khan, and B. Veitch. 2019. “Situation Awareness Modeling for Emergency Management on Offshore Platforms.” Human-Centric Computing and Information Sciences 9, no. 1: 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13673-019-0199-0.

[22] D'Aniello, G., and M. Gaeta. 2023. “Situation Awareness in Human-Machine Systems.” Handbook of Human-Machine Systems: 451-461.

[23] de Winter, J. C., R. Happee, M. H. Martens, and N. A. Stanton. 2014. “Effects of Adaptive Cruise Control and Highly Automated Driving on Workload and Situation Awareness: A Review of the Empirical Evidence.” Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 27: 196-217.

[24] Endsley, M. R.1995. “Measurement of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37, no. 1: 65-84. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872095779049499.

[25] Endsley, M. R.2015. “Situation Awareness Misconceptions and Misunderstandings.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 9, no. 1: 4-32. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343415572631.

[26] Endsley, M. R.2017. “Autonomous Driving Systems: A Preliminary Naturalistic Study of the Tesla Model S.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 11, no. 3: 225-238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343417695197.

[27] Endsley, M. R.2023. “Supporting Human-AI Teams: Transparency, Explainability, and Situation Awareness.” Computers in Human Behavior 140: 107574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107574.

[28] Esenogho, E., K. Djouani, and A. M. Kurien. 2022. “Integrating Artificial Intelligence Internet of Things and 5G for Next-Generation Smartgrid: A Survey of Trends Challenges and Prospect.” IEEE Access 10: 4794-4831.

[29] Ezenyilimba, A., M. Wong, A. Hehr, et al. 2023. “Impact of Transparency and Explanations on Trust and Situation Awareness in Human-Robot Teams.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 17, no. 1: 75-93. https://doi.org/10.1177/15553434221136358.

[30] FERC, NERC, Arizona—Southern California Outages. 2011. Causes and Recommendations, 2012. FERC.

[31] Fertier, A., A. Montarnal, A.-M. Barthe-Delanoë, S. Truptil, and F. Bénaben. 2019. “Real-Time Data Exploitation Supported by Model- and Event-Driven Architecture to Enhance Situation Awareness, Application to Crisis Management.” Enterprise Information Systems 14, no. 6: 769-796. https://doi.org/10.1080/17517575.2019.1691268.

[32] Flin, R., and N. Maran. 2015. “Basic Concepts for Crew Resource Management and Non-Technical Skills.” Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 29, no. 1: 27-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpa.2015.02.002.

[33] Ganesh, V., S. A. Seshia, and S. Jha. 2022. “Machine Learning and Logic: A New Frontier in Artificial Intelligence.” Formal Methods in System Design 60, no. 3: 426-451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10703-023-00430-1.

[34] Gao, Y., and D. Li. 2018. “UAV Swarm Cooperative Situation Perception Consensus Evaluation Method Based on Three-Parameter Interval Number and Heronian Mean Operator.” IEEE Access 6: 73328-73340. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2018.2882409.

[35] Gao, Y., S. Wang, A. Padmanabhan, J. Yin, and G. Cao. 2018. “Mapping Spatiotemporal Patterns of Events Using Social Media: A Case Study of Influenza Trends.” International Journal of Geographical Information Science 32, no. 3: 425-449. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658816.2017.1406943.

[36] Gasciauskaite, G., J. Lunkiewicz, T. R. Roche, D. R. Spahn, C. B. Nöthiger, and D. W. Tscholl. 2023. “Human-Centered Visualization Technologies for Patient Monitoring are the Future: A Narrative.” Critical Care 27, no. 1: 254. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-023-04544-0.

[37] Gillespie, B. M., C. Steel, E. Kang, et al. 2017. “Evaluation of a Brief Team Training Intervention in Surgery: A Mixed-Methods Study.” AORN Journal 106, no. 6: 513-522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aorn.2017.09.013.

[38] Ghaderi, C., R. Esmaeili, A. Ebadi, and M. R. Amiri. 2023. “Measuring Situation Awareness in Health Care Providers: A Systematic Review of Measurement Properties Using COSMIN Methodology.” Systematic Reviews 12, no. 1: 60. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02220-6.

[39] Gong, J., X. Guo, C. Qi, X. Liang, and Q. Wang. 2023. “Measuring Takeover Performance in Different Driving Scenarios: Considering the Influence of Non-Driving-Related Tasks and Takeover Request Lead Time.” Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 97: 411-421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2023.08.002.

[40] Guastello, S. J.2014. Human Factors Engineering and Ergonomics, 26-27. Taylor & Francis Group.

[41] Hu, J., D. Ma, C. Liu, Z. Shi, H. Yan, and C. Hu. 2019. “Network Security Situation Prediction Based on Mr-Svm.” IEEE Access 7: 130937-130945. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2939490.

[42] Huttunen, K., H. Keränen, E. Väyrynen, R. Pääkkönen, and T. Leino. 2011. “Effect of Cognitive Load on Speech Prosody in Aviation: Evidence From Military Simulator Flights.” Applied Ergonomics 42, no. 2: 348-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2010.08.005.

[43] Ignatious, H. A., H. El-Sayed, and P. Kulkarni. 2023. “Multilevel Data and Decision Fusion Using Heterogeneous Sensory Data for Autonomous Vehicles.” Remote Sensing 15, no. 9: 2256. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092256.

[44] Johnson, M., and A. Vera. 2019. “No AI Is an Island: The Case for Teaming Intelligence.” AI Magazine 40, no. 1: 16-28. https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v40i1.2842.

[45] Junger, D., S. M. Frommer, and O. Burgert. 2022. “State-Of-The-Art of Situation Recognition Systems for Intraoperative Procedures.” Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing 60, no. 4: 921-939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11517-022-02520-4.

[46] Kaber, D. B.2018. “Issues in Human-Automation Interaction Modeling: Presumptive Aspects of Frameworks of Types and Levels of Automation.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 12, no. 1: 7-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343417737203.

[47] Keykhaei, M., N. N. Samany, M. Jelokhani-Niaraki, and S. Zlatanova. 2023. “A Situation-Aware Emergency Evacuation (SAEE) Model Using Multi-Agent-Based Simulation for Crisis Management After Earthquake Warning.” Geo-Spatial Information Science 27, no. 6: 1800-1823. https://doi.org/10.1080/10095020.2023.2270017.

[48] Khalid, A., N. F. Warraich, and I. Ali. 2024. “Digital Information Channels During the COVID-19 Global Health Emergency Through a Situational Awareness Lens: A Study of Pakistani Citizens.” Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication 73, no. 8/9: 1103-1118. https://doi.org/10.1108/GKMC-09-2022-0219.

[49] Kim, K., J. Youn, S. Yoon, J. Kang, K. Kim, and D. Shin. 2023. “Study on Cyber Common Operational Picture Framework for Cyber Situational Awareness.” Applied Sciences 13, no. 4: 2331. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13042331.

[50] Korkiakangas, T., S. M. Weldon, J. Bezemer, and R. Kneebone. 2014. “Nurse-Surgeon Object Transfer: Video Analysis of Communication and Situation Awareness in the Operating Theatre.” International Journal of Nursing Studies 51, no. 9: 1195-1206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2014.01.007.

[51] Kridalukmana, R., H. Lu, and M. Naderpour. 2022. “Self-Explaining Abilities of an Intelligent Agent for Transparency in a Collaborative Driving Context.” IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 52, no. 6: 1155-1165. https://doi.org/10.1109/THMS.2022.3202900.

[52] Lavoie, P., A. Lapierre, I. Khetir, et al. 2023. “A Comparison of Nurses’ Situation Awareness and Eye-Tracking Data in Precardiac Arrest Simulations.” Clinical Simulation in Nursing 81: 101429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecns.2023.101429.

[53] Leau, Y. B., and S. Manickam. 2015. “Network Security Situation Prediction: A Review and Discussion.” In Intelligence in the Era of Big Data: 4th International Conference on Soft Computing, Intelligent Systems, and Information Technology, 424-435. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46742-8_39.

[54] Lee, C. E., J. Baek, J. Son, and Y. G. Ha. 2023. “Deep AI Military Staff: Cooperative Battlefield Situation Awareness for Commander's Decision Making.” Journal of Supercomputing 79, no. 6: 6040-6069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11227-022-04882.

[55] Li, R., M. Tapaswi, R. Liao, J. Jia, R. Urtasun, and S. Fidler. 2017. “Situation Recognition With Graph Neural Networks.” IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision 2017: 4183-4192. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCV.2017.448.

[56] Liao, S., J. Wang, R. Yu, K. Sato, and Z. Cheng. 2017. “CNN for Situations Understanding Based on Sentiment Analysis of Twitter Data.” Procedia Computer Science 111: 376-381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.06.037.

[57] Linkov, V., and M. Vanžura. 2021. “Situation Awareness Measurement in Remotely Controlled Cars.” Frontiers in Psychology 12: 592930. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.592930.

[58] Liu, S., H. Liu, V. John, Z. Liu, and E. Blasch. 2020. “Enhanced Situation Awareness Through CNN-Based Deep Multimodal Image Fusion.” Optical Engineering 59, no. 5: 053103. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.Oe.59.5.053103.

[59] Liu, X., Z. Li, Z. Tang, X. Zhang, and H. Wang. 2024. “Application of Artificial Intelligence Technology in Electromechanical Information Security Situation Awareness System.” Scalable Computing: Practice and Experience 25, no. 1: 127-136. https://doi.org/10.12694/scpe.v25i1.2280.

[60] Loft, S., D. B. Morrell, K. Ponton, J. Braithwaite, V. Bowden, and S. Huf. 2016. “The Impact of Uncertain Contact Location on Situation Awareness and Performance in Simulated Submarine Track Management.” Human Factors 58, no. 7: 1052-1068. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720816652754.

[61] Macquet, A. C., and N. A. Stanton. 2014. “Do the Coach and Athlete Have the Same “Picture” of the Situation? Distributed Situation Awareness in an Elite Sport Context.” Applied Ergonomics 45, no. 3: 724-733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2013.09.014.

[62] Mansikka, H., K. Virtanen, V. Uggeldahl, and D. Harris. 2021. “Team Situation Awareness Accuracy Measurement Technique for Simulated Air Combat-Curvilinear Relationship Between Awareness and Performance.” Applied Ergonomics 96: 103473. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2023.2231281.

[63] McAree, O., and W. H. Chen. 2013. “Artificial Situation Awareness for Increased Autonomy of Unmanned Aerial Systems in the Terminal Area.” Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems 70: 545-555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10846-012-9738-x.

[64] McNeese, N. J., M. Demir, N. J. Cooke, and C. Myers. 2018. “Teaming With a Synthetic Teammate: Insights Into Human-Autonomy Teaming.” Human Factors 60, no. 2: 262-273. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720817743223.

[65] Miao, R., Q. Jia, D. Li, and Z. Dong. 2023. “A Comprehensive Situation Awareness Measurement Method for Analyzing the Operators’ Situation Awareness of Multi-Module High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor Plants.” Energies 16, no. 15: 5601. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155601.

[66] Mohsin, B., F. Steinhäusler, P. Madl, and M. Kiefel. 2016. “An Innovative System to Enhance Situational Awareness in Disaster Response.” Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 13, no. 3: 301-327. https://doi.org/10.1515/jhsem-2015-0079.

[67] Morais, R. J., B. Ashokka, C. Siau, and L. K. Ti. 2014. “Simulation of Cardiopulmonary Bypass Management: An Approach to Resident Training.” Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia 28, no. 5: 1387-1392. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jvca.2014.05.026.

[68] Müller, M., T. Ruppert, N. Jazdi, and M. Weyrich. 2024. “Self-Improving Situation Awareness for Human-Robot-Collaboration Using Intelligent Digital Twin.” Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing 35, no. 5: 2045-2063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-023-02138-9.

[69] National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. 2021. Human-AI Teaming: State-Of-The-Art and Research Needs. National Academies Press.

[70] Neville, T. J., P. M. Salmon, and G. J. M. Read. 2016. “Analysis of in-Game Communication as an Indicator of Recognition Primed Decision Making in Elite Australian Rules Football Umpires.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 11, no. 1: 81-96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343416672557.

[71] Neville, T. J., P. M. Salmon, G. J. M. Read, and A. C. Kalloniatis. 2015. “Play on or Call a Foul: Testing and Extending Distributed Situation Awareness Theory Through Sports Officiating.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 17, no. 1: 80-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/1463922x.2015.1106617.

[72] Nguyen, N., J. O. Elliott, W. D. Watson, and E. Dominguez. 2015. “Simulation Improves Nontechnical Skills Performance of Residents During the Perioperative and Intraoperative Phases of Surgery.” Journal of Surgical Education 72, no. 5: 957-963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2015.03.005.

[73] Noh, S.2020. “Intelligent Data Fusion and Multi-Agent Coordination for Target Allocation.” Electronics 9, no. 10: 1563. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics9101563.

[74] O'Brien, A., G. J. M. Read, and P. M. Salmon. 2020. “Situation Awareness in Multi-Agency Emergency Response: Models, Methods and Applications.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 48: 101634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101634.

[75] O'Neill, T., N. McNeese, A. Barron, and B. Schelble. 2022. “Human-Autonomy Teaming: A Review and Analysis of the Empirical Literature.” Human Factors 64, no. 5: 904-938. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720820960865.

[76] Pairet, È., P. Ardón, X. Liu, J. Lopes, H. Hastie, and K. S. Lohan. 2019. “A Digital Twin for Human-Robot Interaction.” In 14th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction(HRI), 2019, 372. IEEE.

[77] Panteli, M., and D. S. Kirschen. 2015. “Situation Awareness in Power Systems: Theory, Challenges and Applications.” Electric Power Systems Research 122: 140-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2015.01.008.

[78] Park, M. O.2019. “Driving Scene-Based Driving Errors in Brain Injury Patients and Their Relevance to Cognitive-Perceptual Function and Functional Activity Level: A Cross-Sectional Study.” Medicine (Baltimore) 98, no. 27: e16315. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000016315.

[79] Park, Y., J. Ji, and H. Kang. 2024. “Effect of a Looming Visual Cue on Situation Awareness and Perceived Urgency in Response to a Takeover Request.” Heliyon 10, no. 1: e23053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23053.

[80] Parush, A.2017. “Situational Awareness: A Tacit Yet Viable Concept.” Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia 64, no. 8: 797-800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12630-017-0905-1.

[81] Prostejovsky, A. M., C. Brosinsky, K. Heussen, D. Westermann, J. Kreuse, and M. Marinelli. 2019. “The Future Role of Human Operators in Highly Automated Electric Power Systems.” Electric Power Systems Research 175: 105883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.105883.

[82] Röckel, C., and H. Hecht. 2023. “Regular Looks Out the Window Do Not Maintain Situation Awareness in Highly Automated Driving.” Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 98: 368-381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2023.09.015.

[83] Sanneman, L., and J. A. Shah. 2022. “The Situation Awareness Framework for Explainable AI (SAFE-AI) and Human Factors Considerations for XAI Systems.” International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 38, no. 18-20: 1772-1788. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2081282.

[84] Salmon, P., N. Stanton, G. Walker, and D. Green. 2006. “Situation Awareness Measurement: A Review of Applicability for C4i Environments.” Applied Ergonomics 37, no. 2: 225-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2005.02.001.

[85] Schnell, T., Y. Kwon, S. Merchant, and T. Etherington. 2004. “Improved Flight Technical Performance in Flight Decks Equipped With Synthetic Vision Information System Displays.” International Journal of Aviation Psychology 14, no. 1: 79-102. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327108ijap1401_5.

[86] Schulz, C. M., V. Krautheim, A. Hackemann, M. Kreuzer, E. F. Kochs, and K. J. Wagner. 2016. “Situation Awareness Errors in Anesthesia and Critical Care in 200 Cases of a Critical Incident Reporting System.” BMC Anesthesiology 16: 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12871-016-0172-7.

[87] Schaefer, K. E., E. R. Straub, J. Y. Chen, J. Putney, and A. W. Evans . 2017. “Communicating Intent to Develop Shared Situation Awareness and Engender Trust in Human-Agent Teams.” Cognitive Systems Research 46: 26-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2017.02.002.

[88] Seizovic, A., D. Thorpe, and S. Goh. 2022. “Emergent Behavior in the Battle Management System.” Applied Artificial Intelligence 36, no. 1: 2151183. https://doi.org/10.1080/08839514.2022.2151183.

[89] Shafique, K., B. A. Khawaja, F. Sabir, S. Qazi, and M. Mustaqim. 2020. “Internet of Things (IoT) for Next-Generation Smart Systems: A Review of Current Challenges, Future Trends and Prospects for Emerging 5G-IoT Scenarios.” IEEE Access 8: 23022-23040.

[90] Shamseer, L., D. Moher, M. Clarke, et al. 2015. “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015: Elaboration and Explanation.” BMJ 349: g7647. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7647.

[91] Shan, S. Q., F. Zhao, Y. G. Wei, and M. N. Liu. 2019. “Disaster Management 2.0: A Real-Time Disaster Damage Assessment Model Based on Mobile Social Media Data-A Case Study of Weibo (Chinese Twitter).” Safety Science 115: 393-413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.02.029.

[92] Singh, N., N. Roy, and A. Gangopadhyay. 2019. “Analyzing the Emotions of Crowd for Improving the Emergency Response Services.” Pervasive and Mobile Computing 58: 101018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmcj.2019.04.009.

[93] Smith, K., and P. A. Hancock. 1995. “Situation Awareness Is Adaptive, Externally Directed Consciousness.” Human Factors 37, no. 1: 137-148.

[94] Solberg, E., E. Nystad, and R. McDonald. 2023. “Situation Awareness in Outage Work-A Study of Events Occurring in US Nuclear Power Plants Between 2016 and 2020.” Safety Science 158: 105965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2022.105965.

[95] Stanton, N. A., A. P. J. Roberts, and D. T. Fay. 2017. “Up Periscope: Understanding Submarine Command and Control Teamwork During a Simulated Return to Periscope Depth.” Cognition, Technology & Work 19, no. 2-3: 399-417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-017-0413-7.

[96] Stanton, N. A., P. M. Salmon, G. H. Walker, E. Salas, and P. A. Hancock. 2017. “State-Of-Science: Situation Awareness in Individuals, Teams and Systems.” Ergonomics 60, no. 4: 449-466. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2017.1278796.

[97] Tscholl, D. W., L. Handschin, J. Rössler, M. Weiss, D. R. Spahn, and C. B. Nöthiger. 2019. “It's Not You, It's the Design-Common Problems With Patient Monitoring Reported by Anesthesiologists: A Mixed Qualitative and Quantitative Study.” BMC anesthesiology 19: 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12871-019-0757-z.

[98] UCTE. 2007. Final Report System Disturbance on 4 November 2006. UCTE.

[99] van de Merwe, K., S. Mallam, and S. Nazir. 2024. “Agent Transparency, Situation Awareness, Mental Workload, and Operator Performance: A Systematic Literature Review.” Human Factors 66, no. 1: 180-208. https://doi.org/10.1177/00187208221077804.

[100] Vered, M., P. Howe, T. Miller, L. Sonenberg, and E. Velloso. 2020. “Demand-Driven Transparency for Monitoring Intelligent Agents.” IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 50, no. 3: 264-275. https://doi.org/10.1109/thms.2020.2988859.

[101] Wang, X., W. Bo, W. Yang, S. Cui, and P. Chu. 2020. “Effect of High-Altitude Environment on Driving Safety: A Study on Drivers' Mental Workload, Situation Awareness, and Driving Behaviour.” Journal of Advanced Transportation 2020: 7283025. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/7283025.

[102] Walshe, N., S. Ryng, J. Drennan, et al. 2021. “Situation Awareness and the Mitigation of Risk Associated With Patient Deterioration: A Meta-Narrative Review of Theories and Models and Their Relevance to Nursing Practice.” International journal of nursing studies 124: 104086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.104086.

[103] Webster, J., and R. T. Watson. 2002. “Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review.” MIS Quarterly 26, no. 2: iii-xiii.

[104] Wei, W., J. S. Wu, and C. S. Zhu. 2020. “Special Issue on Situation Awareness in Intelligent Human-Computer Interaction for Time Critical Decision Making.” IEEE Intelligent Systems 35, no. 1: 3-5. https://doi.org/10.1109/mis.2019.2956692.

[105] Wen, Y., Y. Huang, C. Zhou, J. Yang, C. Xiao, and X. Wu. 2015. “Modelling of Marine Traffic Flow Complexity.” Ocean Engineering 104: 500-510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2015.04.051.

[106] Weller, J. M., R. Mahajan, K. Fahey-Williams, and C. S. Webster. 2024. “Teamwork Matters: Team Situation Awareness to Build High-Performing Healthcare Teams, a Narrative Review.” British Journal of Anaesthesia 132, no. 4: 771-778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2023.12.035.

[107] Wickens, C. D.2015. “Situation Awareness: Its Applications Value and Its Fuzzy Dichotomies.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 9, no. 1: 90-94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343414564571.

[108] Xu, G., Y. Cao, Y. Ren, X. Li, and Z. Feng. 2017. “Network Security Situation Awareness Based on Semantic Ontology and User-Defined Rules for Internet of Things.” IEEE Access 5: 21046-21056. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2734681.

[109] You, F., Q. Fu, J. Yang, H. Chen, W. Cui, and J. Wang. 2023. “Team Situation Awareness-Based Augmented Reality Head-Up Display Design for Security Requirements.” International Journal of Human Computer Interaction 40, no. 18: 5119-5138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2023.2231281.

[110] Yu, S., and K. Han. 2019. “Taking Others' Perspectives Enhances Situation Awareness in the Smart Home Interface.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 2761. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02761.

[111] Yule, S., S. H. Parker, J. Wilkinson, et al. 2015. “Coaching Non-Technical Skills Improves Surgical Residents' Performance in a Simulated Operating Room.” Journal of Surgical Education 72, no. 6: 1124-1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2015.06.012.

[112] Zangi, N., R. Srour-Zreik, D. Ridel, H. Chassidim, and A. Borowsky. 2022. “Driver Distraction and Its Effects on Partially Automated Driving Performance: A Driving Simulator Study Among Young-Experienced Drivers.” Accident Analysis & Prevention 166: 106565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2022.106565.

[113] Zhong, X., X. Zhang, and P. Zhang. 2022. “Pipeline Risk Big Data Intelligent Decision-Making System Based on Machine Learning and Situation Awareness.” Neural Computing and Applications 34, no. 18: 15221-15239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-021-06738-5.

[114] Zhou, Y., G. Zhao, R. Alroobaea, A. M. Baqasah, and R. Miglani. 2022. “Research on Data Mining Method of Network Security Situation Awareness Based on Cloud Computing.” Journal of Intelligent Systems 31, no. 1: 520-531. https://doi.org/10.1515/jisys-2022-0037.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). PsyCh Journal published by Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.