Dispositional Awe Predicts Mental Health Through Interpretation Bias During COVID-19 Transmission: A Longitudinal Study

Abstract

During a public health emergency, such as the widespread transmission of COVID-19 following loosened COVID-19 policies in China, people's mental health is impacted along with their physical well-being. In order to investigate ways to mitigate these negative effects, this study examined how dispositional awe can predict mental health outcomes during such emergencies using a three-wave longitudinal design. Five hundred twenty seven participants (mean age = 21.18, SD = 3.39; 368 males) took part in the study within the first 2 months after the implementation of loosened COVID-19 policies, with one-month intervals between waves. Cross-lagged analysis revealed that dispositional awe in Wave 1 significantly predicted higher positive and lower negative interpretation bias in Wave 2, which in turn promoted positive mental functioning in Wave 3. Furthermore, negative interpretation bias in Wave 2 acted as a mediator for the predictive role of dispositional awe in Wave 1 on psychosomatic symptoms in Wave 3. These findings suggest that dispositional awe can act as a protective factor for mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic by influencing people's interpretation orientation.

Keywords

dispositional awe / interpretation bias / longitudinal study / mediation effect / mental health

References

[1] Amin, N., E. Foa, and M. Coles. 1998. “Negative Interpretation Bias in Social Phobia.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 36: 945-957. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00060-6.

[2] Anderson, C. L., M. Monroy, and D. Keltner. 2018. “Awe in Nature Heals: Evidence From Military Veterans, At-Risk Youth, and College Students.” Emotion 18, no. 8: 1195-1202. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000442.

[3] Bai, Y., L. A. Maruskin, S. Chen, et al. 2017. “Awe, the Diminished Self, and Collective Engagement: Universals and Cultural Variations in the Small Self.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 113, no. 2: 185-209. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000087.

[4] Bai, Y., J. Ocampo, G. Jin, et al. 2021. “Awe, Daily Stress, and Elevated Life Satisfaction.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 120, no. 4: 837-860. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000267.

[5] Beck, A. T.2008. “The Evolution of the Cognitive Model of Depression and Its Neurobiological Correlates.” American Journal of Psychiatry 165, no. 8: 969-977. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08050721.

[6] Bernstein, L., and J. Patrick. 2020. “Age Moderates the Effect of Awe on Cognitive but Not Emotional Well-Being.” Innovation in Aging 4, no. S1: 455. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa057.1473.

[7] Bland, J. M., and D. G. Altman. 1995. “Multiple Significance Tests: The Bonferroni Method.” British Medical Journal 310, no. 6973: 170. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.310.6973.170.

[8] Boehme, S., W. H. Miltner, and T. Straube. 2015. “Neural Correlates of Self-Focused Attention in Social Anxiety.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10, no. 6: 856-862. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsu128.

[9] Bonner, E. T., and H. L. Edward. 2016. “The Role of Awe in Psychotherapy:Perspectives From Transpersonal Psychology.” Voices the art & Science of Psychotherapy 52, no. 1: 62-71.

[10] Bonner, E. T., and H. L. Friedman. 2011. “A Conceptual Clarification of the Experience of Awe: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.” Humanistic Psychologist 39, no. 3: 222-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2011.593372.

[11] Buessing, A., A. G. Wirth, F. Reiser, et al. 2014. “Experience of Gratitude, Awe and Beauty in Life Among Patients With Multiple Sclerosis and Psychiatric Disorders.” Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 12: 63. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-12-63.

[12] Bussing, A., D. R. Recchia, T. Dienberg, J. Surzykiewicz, and K. Baumann. 2021. “Awe/Gratitude as an Experiential Aspect of Spirituality and Its Association to Perceived Positive Changes During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 12: 642716. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.642716.

[13] Büssing, A., A. G. Wirth, K. Humbroich, et al. 2013. “Faith as a Resource in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis Is Associated With a Positive Interpretation of Illness and Experience of Gratitude/Awe.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013: 128575. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/128575.

[14] Van Cappellen, P., and V. Saroglou. 2012. “Awe Activates Religious and Spiritual Feelings and Behavioral Intentions.” Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 4, no. 3: 223-236. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025986.

[15] Chakraborty, U., M. K. Pandey, D. Mishra, N. K. Mishra, and A. Bapte. 2021. “Impact of Psychological Distress due to COVID-19 Pandemic on Spouse Interpersonal Relationships.” Indian Journal of Mental Health 8, no. 2: 192-199.

[16] Cole, D. A., and S. E. Maxwell. 2003. “Testing Mediational Models With Longitudinal Data: Questions and Tips in the Use of Structural Equation Modeling.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, no. 4: 558-577. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.112.4.558.

[17] Derogatis, L. R., K. Rickels, and A. F. Rock. 1976. “The SCL-90 and the MMPI: A Step in the Validation of a New Self-Report Scale.” British Journal of Psychiatry 128, no. 3: 280-289. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.128.3.280.

[18] Diener, E., R. Emmons, R. Larsen, and S. Griffin. 1985. “The Satisfaction With Life Scale.” Social Science Electronic Publishing 49, no. 1: 71-75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.

[19] van Elk, M., M. A. A. Gomez, W. van der Zwaag, H. T. van Schie, and D. Sauter. 2019. “The Neural Correlates of the Awe Experience: Reduced Default Mode Network Activity During Feelings of Awe.” Human Brain Mapping 40, no. 12: 3561-3574. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.24616.

[20] Fang, J., and Z. Wen. 2023. Advanced Models of Mediating Effects and Regulating Effects. Education Science Publishing House.

[21] Fink-Lamotte, J., A. Widmann, J. Fader, and C. Exner. 2020. “Interpretation Bias and Contamination-Based Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms Influence Emotional Intensity Related to Disgust and Fear.” PLoS One 15, no. 4: e0232362. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232362.

[22] Fredrickson, B. L.2001. “The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology - The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions.” American Psychologist 56, no. 3: 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.218.

[23] Gawęda, Ł., K. Prochwicz, and M. Cella. 2015. “Cognitive Biases Mediate the Relationship Between Temperament and Character and Psychotic-Like Experiences in Healthy Adults.” Psychiatry Research 225, no. 1-2: 50-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.10.006.

[24] Giuntella, O., K. Hyde, S. Saccardo, and S. Sadoff. 2021. “Lifestyle and Mental Health Disruptions During COVID-19.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 9: e2016632118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2016632118.

[25] Goldrick-Rab, S., V. Coca, J. Gill, M. Peele, K. Clark, and E. Looker. 2022. “Self-Reported COVID-19 Infection and Implications for Mental Health and Food Insecurity Among American College Students.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 7: e2111787119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2111787119.

[26] Gordon, A. M., J. E. Stellar, C. L. Anderson, G. D. McNeil, D. Loew, and D. Keltner. 2017. “The Dark Side of the Sublime: Distinguishing a Threat-Based Variant of Awe.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 113, no. 2: 310-328. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000120.

[27] Hirsch, C. R., C. Krahé, J. Whyte, et al. 2018. “Interpretation Training to Target Repetitive Negative Thinking in Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Depression.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 86, no. 12: 1017-1030. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000310.

[28] Hughes, A. A., and P. C. Kendall. 2008. “Effect of a Positive Emotional State on Interpretation Bias for Threat in Children With Anxiety Disorders.” Emotion 8, no. 3: 414. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.414.

[29] Hurley, J., J. Hodgekins, S. Coker, and D. Fowler. 2018. “Persecutory Delusions: Effects of Cognitive Bias Modification for Interpretation and the Maudsley Review Training Programme on Social Anxiety, Jumping to Conclusions, Belief Inflexibility and Paranoia.” Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 61: 14-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.05.003.

[30] Jopling, E., A. Tracy, and J. Lemoult. 2021. “Cognitive Disengagement and Biological Stress Responses in Early Adolescence.” Psychoneuroendocrinology 126, no. 1: 105166.

[31] Joseph, S., P. A. Linley, J. Harwood, C. A. Lewis, and P. McCollam. 2004. “Rapid Assessment of Well-Being: The Short Depression-Happiness Scale (SDHS).” Psychology and Psychotherapy 77, no. 4: 463-478. https://doi.org/10.1348/1476083042555406.

[32] Keltner, D., and J. Haidt. 2003. “Approaching Awe, a Moral, Spiritual, and Aesthetic Emotion.” Cognition & Emotion 17, no. 2: 297-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930302297.

[33] Leung, C. J., J. Yiend, and T. M. C. Lee. 2022. “The Relationship Between Attention, Interpretation, and Memory Bias During Facial Perception in Social Anxiety.” Behavior Therapy 53, no. 4: 701-713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2022.01.011.

[34] Liu, Y. P., B. T. Zhou, and B. Yang. 2022. “How Does Emotion Shape Aggressive Behavior of Violent Offenders? An Explanation Based on Emotion Regulation Theory.” Acta Psychologica Sinica 54, no. 3: 270. https://doi.org/10.3724/sp.J.1041.2022.00270.

[35] Lovoll, H. S., and K. W. Saether. 2022. “Awe Experiences, the Sublime, and Spiritual Well-Being in Arctic Wilderness.” Frontiers in Psychology 13: 973922. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.973922.

[36] Lu, Y., N. Kaushal, X. Huang, and S. M. Gaddis. 2021. “Priming COVID-19 Salience Increases Prejudice and Discriminatory Intent Against Asians and Hispanics.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 36: e2105125118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2105125118.

[37] Lüdtke, O., and A. Robitzsch. 2021. “A Critique of the Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model.” PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/6f85c.

[38] Luo, L., J. Mao, S. Chen, W. Gao, and J. Yuan. 2021. “Psychological Research of Awe: Definition, Functions, and Application in Psychotherapy.” Stress and Brain 1, no. 1: 59-75. https://doi.org/10.26599/SAB.2020.9060003.

[39] Luo, L., R. Zou, D. Yang, and J. Yuan. 2023. “Awe Experience Triggered by Fighting Against COVID-19 Promotes Prosociality Through Increased Feeling of Connectedness and Empathy.” Journal of Positive Psychology 18, no. 6: 866-882. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2022.2131607.

[40] McCullough, M. E., R. A. Emmons, and J. A. Tsang. 2002. “The Grateful Disposition: A Conceptual and Empirical Topography.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82, no. 1: 112-127. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.112.

[41] McCullough, M. E., S. D. Kilpatrick, R. A. Emmons, and D. B. Larson. 2001. “Is Gratitude a Moral Affect?” Psychological Bulletin 127, no. 2: 249-266. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.249.

[42] McGregor, I., P. R. Nail, D. Kocalar, and R. Haji. 2013. “I'm OK, I'm OK: Praise Makes Narcissists With Low Implicit Self-Esteem Indifferent to the Suffering of Others.” Personality and Individual Differences 55, no. 6: 655-659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.05.007.

[43] Mobini, S., B. Mackintosh, J. Illingworth, L. Gega, P. Langdon, and L. Hoppitt. 2014. “Effects of Standard and Explicit Cognitive Bias Modification and Computer-Administered Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy on Cognitive Biases and Social Anxiety.” Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 45, no. 2: 272-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.12.002.

[44] Montoro, C. I., P. de la Coba, M. Moreno-Padilla, and C. M. Galvez-Sánchez. 2022. “Narcissistic Personality and Its Relationship With Post-Traumatic Symptoms and Emotional Factors: Results of a Mediational Analysis Aimed at Personalizing Mental Health Treatment.” Behavioral Science 12, no. 4: 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12040091.

[45] Moser, J. S., J. D. Huppert, E. B. Foa, and R. F. Simons. 2012. “Interpretation of Ambiguous Social Scenarios in Social Phobia and Depression: Evidence From Event-Related Brain Potentials.” Biological Psychology 89, no. 2: 387-397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.12.001.

[46] Nejati, V., E. Fathi, S. Shahidi, and M. A. Salehinejad. 2019. “Cognitive Training for Modifying Interpretation and Attention Bias in Depression: Relevance to Mood Improvement and Implications for Cognitive Intervention in Depression.” Asian Journal of Psychiatry 39: 23-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2018.11.012.

[47] Podina, I. R., A. Cosmoiu, P. Rusu, and A. Chivu. 2020. “Positive Thinking Is Not Adaptive Thinking: A Cognitive-Behavioral Take on Interpretation Bias Modification for Social Anxiety.” Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 38, no. 3: 424-444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-020-00344-5.

[48] Podsakoff, P. M., S. B. MacKenzie, and N. P. Podsakoff. 2012. “Sources of Method Bias in Social Science Research and Recommendations on How to Control It.” Annual Review of Psychology 63: 539-569. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452.

[49] Proto, E., and A. Zhang. 2021. “COVID-19 and Mental Health of Individuals With Different Personalities.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 37: e2215498119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109282118.

[50] Rankin, K., S. E. Andrews, and K. Sweeny. 2020. “Awe-Full Uncertainty: Easing Discomfort During Waiting Periods.” Journal of Positive Psychology 15, no. 3: 338-347. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2019.1615106.

[51] Rudd, M., K. D. Vohs, and J. Aaker. 2012. “Awe Expands People's Perception of Time, Alters Decision Making, and Enhances Well-Being.” Psychological Science 23, no. 10: 1130-1136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612438731.

[52] Rude, S. S., C. R. Valdez, S. Odom, and A. Ebrahimi. 2003. “Negative Cognitive Biases Predict Subsequent Depression.” Cognitive Therapy and Research 27: 415-429. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025472413805.

[53] Sawada, K., and M. Nomura. 2020. “Influence of Positive and Threatened Awe on the Attitude Toward Norm Violations.” Frontiers in Psychology 11: 148. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00148.

[54] Schick, A., M. Wessa, B. Vollmayr, C. Kuehner, and P. Kanske. 2013. “Indirect Assessment of an Interpretation Bias in Humans: Neurophysiological and Behavioral Correlates.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7: 272. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00272.

[55] Schneider, K.2017. “The Resurgence of Awe in Psychology: Promise, Hope, and Perils.” Humanistic Psychologist 45, no. 2: 103-108. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000060.

[56] Schneider, K. J.2009. Awakening to Awe: Personal Stories of Profound Transformation. Jason Aronson.

[57] Schoemann, A. M., A. J. Boulton, and S. D. Short. 2017. “Determining Power and Sample Size for Simple and Complex Mediation Models.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 8, no. 4: 379-386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617715068.

[58] Seidmahmoodi, J., C. Rahimi, and N. Mohamadi. 2011. “Resiliency and Religious Orientation: Factors Contributing to Posttraumatic Growth in Iranian Subjects.” Iranian Journal of Psychiatry 6, no. 4: 145-150.

[59] Shiota, M. N., D. Keltner, and O. P. John. 2006. “Positive Emotion Dispositions Differentially Associated With Big Five Personality and Attachment Style.” Journal of Positive Psychology 1, no. 2: 61-71. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760500510833.

[60] Shiota, M. N., T. M. Thrash, A. F. Danvers, and J. T. Dombrowski. 2014. “Transcending the Self: Awe, Elevation, and Inspiration.” In Handbook of Positive Emotions, edited by M. M. Tugade, M. N. Shiota, and L. D. Kirby, 362-377. Guilford Press.

[61] Silvia, P. J., K. Fayn, E. C. Nusbaum, and R. E. Beaty. 2015. “Openness to Experience and Awe in Response to Nature and Music: Personality and Profound Aesthetic Experiences.” Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts 9, no. 4: 376-384. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000028.

[62] Sonoda, A.2007. “Cognitive Bias in Judgments of Contingency and Explanatory Style: Its Adaptive Effects for Experimental Noncontingency.” Journal of International Relations & Comparative Culture 6: 119-133.

[63] Stellar, J. E.2021. “Awe Helps Us Remember Why It Is Important to Forget the Self.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1501, no. 1: 81-84. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14577.

[64] Stellar, J. E., A. M. Gordon, P. K. Piff, et al. 2017. “Self-Transcendent Emotions and Their Social Functions: Compassion, Gratitude, and Awe Bind Us to Others Through Prosociality.” Emotion Review 9, no. 3: 200-207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916684557.

[65] Sturm, V. E., S. Datta, A. R. K. Roy, et al. 2022. “Big Smile, Small Self: Awe Walks Promote Prosocial Positive Emotions in Older Adults.” Emotion 22, no. 5: 1044-1058. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000876.

[66] Teague, T., A. Debian, M. Kokonda, et al. 2022. “Association of Poor Sleep With Stress, Anxiety, Emotional Support, Social Isolation, and Depression During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Sleep 45, no. S1: A298-A299. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsac079.677.

[67] Tsai, J., E. B. Elbogen, M. Huang, C. S. North, and R. H. Pietrzak. 2021. “Psychological Distress and Alcohol Use Disorder During the COVID-19 Era Among Middle- and Low-Income US Adults.” Journal of Affective Disorders 288: 41-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.03.085.

[68] Valdesolo, P., and J. Graham. 2014. “Awe, Uncertainty, and Agency Detection.” Psychological Science 25, no. 1: 170-178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613501884.

[69] Vinograd, M., A. L. Williams, M. Sun, L. Bobova, and M. G. Craske. 2020. “Neuroticism and Interpretive Bias as Risk Factors for Anxiety and Depression.” Clinical Psychological Science 8, no. 4: 641-656. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702620906145.

[70] Voelkle, M. C., N. C. Ebner, U. Lindenberger, and M. Riediger. 2014. “A Note on Age Differences in Mood-Congruent vs. Mood-Incongruent Emotion Processing in Faces.” Frontiers in Psychology 5: 635. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00635.

[71] Wang, L., and Q. Zhang. 2020. “Investigating the Impact of the Time Interval Selection on Autoregressive Mediation Modeling: Result Interpretations, Effect Reporting, and Temporal Designs.” Psychological Methods 25, no. 3: 271-291. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000235.

[72] Witteveen, D., and E. Velthorst. 2020. “Economic Hardship and Mental Health Complaints During COVID-19.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 44: 27277-27284. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2009609117.

[73] Wood, A. M., J. J. Froh, and A. W. A. Geraghty. 2010. “Gratitude and Well-Being: A Review and Theoretical Integration.” Clinical Psychology Review 30, no. 7: 890-905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005.

[74] Wu, X., T. Guo, C. Zhang, et al. 2021. “From Aha! to Haha! Using Humor to Cope With Negative Stimuli.” Cerebral Cortex 31, no. 4: 2238-2250. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhaa357.

[75] Xiong, J., O. Lipsitz, F. Nasri, et al. 2020. “Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health in the General Population: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Affective Disorders 277: 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001.

[76] Yaden, D. B., J. Haidt, R. W. Hood, D. R. Vago, and A. B. Newberg. 2017. “The Varieties of Self-Transcendent Experience.” Review of General Psychology 21, no. 2: 143-160. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000102.

[77] Yang, J. X. 2011. “An Experimental Study of Interpretive Bias in Socially Anxious Adolescents Southwest University.”

[78] Yang, W. G. 2016. “Study on the Cognitive Bias Mechanisms of Gratitude Traits and Gratitude States.” Master's thesis, Shanxi Nornal University.

[79] Zhang, L. P. 2022. “Awe Reduce Self-Face Advantage: Evidence From Behavior and Event-Related Potentials.” Master's thesis, Southwest University.

[80] Zhao, H., H. Zhang, Y. Xu, W. He, and J. Lu. 2019. “Why Are People High in Dispositional Awe Happier? The Roles of Meaning in Life and Materialism.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 1208. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01208.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). PsyCh Journal published by Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.