Oral microbiomes: more and more importance in oral cavity and whole body

Abstract

Microbes appear in every corner of human life, and microbes affect every aspect of human life. The human oral cavity contains a number of different habitats. Synergy and interaction of variable oral microorganisms help human body against invasion of undesirable stimulation outside. However, imbalance of microbial flora contributes to oral diseases and systemic diseases. Oral microbiomes play an important role in the human microbial community and human health. The use of recently developed molecular methods has greatly expanded our knowledge of the composition and function of the oral microbiome in health and disease. Studies in oral microbiomes and their interactions with microbiomes in variable body sites and variable health condition are critical in our cognition of our body and how to make effect on human health improvement.

Keywords

oral microbiomes / human / health / oral diseases / systematic diseases

References

[1] Adler CJ, Dobney K, Weyrich LS, Kaidonis J, Walker AW, Haak W, Bradshaw CJ, Townsend G, Sołtysiak A, Alt KW (2013) Sequencing ancient calcified dental plaque shows changes in oral microbiota with dietary shifts of the Neolithic and Industrial revolutions. Nat Genet 45(4):450–455

[2] Agnello M, Marques J, Cen L, Mittermuller B, Huang A, Chaichanasakul Tran N, Shi W, He X, Schroth RJ (2017) Microbiome associated with severe caries in Canadian First Nations Children. J Dent Res 96(12):1378–1385.

[3] Ahn J, Yang L, Paster BJ, Ganly I, Morris L, Pei Z, Hayes RB (2011) Oral microbiome profiles: 16S rRNA pyrosequencing and microarray assay comparison. PLoS ONE 6(7):e22788

[4] Ahn J, Chen CY, Hayes RB (2012) Oral microbiome and oral and gastrointestinal cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control 23(3):399–404

[5] All Human Oral Microbial Taxa (2018)

[6] Amer A, Galvin S, Healy CM, Moran GP (2017) The microbiome of potentially malignant oral leukoplakia exhibits enrichment for Fusobacterium, Leptotrichia, Campylobacter, and Rothia species. Front Microbiol 8:2391–2400

[7] An JY, Darveau R, Kaeberlein M (2018) Oral health in geroscience: animal models and the aging oral cavity. Geroscience 40(1):1–10

[8] Anukam KC, Agbakoba NR (2017) A comparative study of the oral microbiome compositions of healthy postmenopausal, premenopausal, and prepubertal Nigerian females, using 16s rrna metagenomics methods. Niger J Clin Pract 20(10):1250

[9] Atarashi K, Suda W, Luo C, Kawaguchi T, Motoo I, Narushima S, Kiguchi Y, Yasuma K, Watanabe E, Tanoue T (2017) Ectopic colonization of oral bacteria in the intestine drives TH1 cell induction and inflammation. Science 358(6361):359–365

[10] Baumgart M, Dogan B, Rishniw M, Weitzman G, Bosworth B, Yantiss R, Orsi RH, Wiedmann M, McDonough P, Kim SG (2007) Culture independent analysis of ileal mucosa reveals a selective increase in invasive Escherichia coli of novel phylogeny relative to depletion of Clostridiales in Crohn’s disease involving the ileum. ISME J 1:403–418

[11] Bewley AF, Farwell DG (2017) Oral leukoplakia and oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Clin Dermatol 35(5):461–467

[12] Blanton JM, Kirega AT, Yang L, Chen T, Leonetti C, Tanner A, Wade W, Paster BJ, Dewhirst FE, Izard J (2012) The human oral microbiome: a status report. In: AADR Meeting, Tampa

[13] Blod C, Schlichting N, Schülin S, Suttkus A, Peukert N, Stingu CS, Hirsch C, Elger W, Lacher M, Bühligen U (2017) The oral microbiome-the relevant reservoir for acute pediatric appendicitis? Int J Colorectal Dis 33(2):209–218

[14] Brito IL, Yilmaz S, Huang K, Xu L, Jupiter SD, Jenkins AP, Naisilisili W, Tamminen M, Smillie CS, Wortman JR (2016) Mobile genes in the human microbiome are structured from global to individual scales. Nature 535(7612):435–439

[15] Brown LR, Fromme WJ, Handler SF, Wheatcroft MG, Johnston DA (1976) Effect of Skylab missions on clinical and microbiologic aspects of oral health. J Am Dent Assoc 93(2):357–363

[16] Butler RR, Soomer-James JT, Frenette M, Pombert JF (2017) Complete genome sequences of two human oral microbiome commensals: Streptococcus salivarius ATCC 25975 and S. salivarius ATCC 27945. Genome Announc 5(24):e00536–17

[17] Caballero S, Pamer EG (2015) Microbiota-mediated inflammation and antimicrobial defense in the intestine. Annu Rev Immunol 33:227–256

[18] Casarin RC, Barbagallo A, Meulman T, Santos VR, Sallum EA, Nociti FH, Duarte PM, Casati MZ, Gonçalves RB (2013) Subgingival biodiversity in subjects with uncontrolled type-2 diabetes and chronic periodontitis. J Periodontal Res 48(1):30–36

[19] Chen T, Yu WH, Izard J, Baranova OV, Lakshmanan A, Dewhirst FE (2010) The Human Oral Microbiome Database: a web accessible resource for investigating oral microbe taxonomic and genomic information. Database (Oxford) 2010:baq013

[20] Cianciola LJ, Park BH, Bruck E, Mosovich L, Genco RJ (1982) Prevalence of periodontal disease in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (juvenile diabetes). J Am Dent Assoc 104:653–660

[21] Corrêa JD, Calderaro DC, Ferreira GA, Mendonça SM, Fernandes GR, Xiao E, Teixeira AL, Leys EJ, Graves DT, Silva TA (2017) Subgingival microbiota dysbiosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: association with periodontal status. Microbiome 5:34–46

[22] Costalonga M, Herzberg MC (2014) The oral microbiome and the immunobiology of periodontal disease and caries. Immunol Lett 162(2 Pt A):22–38

[23] Costello EK, Lauber CL, Hamady M, Fierer N, Gordon JI, Knight R (2009) Bacterial community variation in human body habitats across space and time. Science 326(5960):1694–1697

[24] Costello EK, Relman DA (2014) Population health: immaturity in the gut microbial community. Nature 510(7505):344–345

[25] Cullinan MP, Westerman B, Hamlet SM, Palmer JE, Faddy MJ, Lang NP, Seymour GJ (2001) A longitudinal study of interleukin-1 gene polymorphisms and periodontal disease in a general adult population. J Clin Periodontol 28:1137–1144

[26] Dang AT, Cotton S, Sankaran-Walters S, Li CS, Lee CY, Dandekar S, Paster BJ, George MD (2012) Evidence of an increased pathogenic footprint in the lingual micro- biome of untreated HIV infected patients. BMC Microbiol 12:153

[27] de Araújo MF, Etchebehere RM, de Melo MLR, Beghini M, Severino VO, de Castro Côbo E, Rocha Rodrigues DB, de Lima Pereira SA (2017) Analysis of CD15, CD57 and HIF-1α in biopsies of patients with peri-implantitis. Pathol Res Pract 213(9):1097–1101

[28] Dewhirst FE, Chen T, Izard J, Paster BJ, Tanner AC, Yu WH, Lakshmanan A, Wade WG (2010) The human oral microbiome. J Bacteriol 192(19):5002–5017

[29] Ding T, Schloss PD (2014) Dynamics and associations of microbial community types across thehumanbody. Nature509(7500):357–360

[30] Emrich LJ, Shlossman M, Genco RJ (1991) Periodontal disease in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Periodontol 62:123–131

[31] Eren AM, Borisy GG, Huse SM, Mark Welch JL (2014) Oligotyping analysis of the human oral microbiome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(28):E2875–E2884

[32] Fan X, Alekseyenko AV, Wu J, Peters BA, Jacobs EJ, Gapstur SM, Purdue MP, Abnet CC, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Miller G (2016) Human oral microbiome and prospective risk for pancreatic cancer: a population-based nested case-control study. Gut 67(1):120–127

[33] Fardini Y, Chung P, Dumm R, Joshi N, Han YW (2010) Transmission of diverse oral bacteria to murine placenta: evidence for the oral microbiome as a potential source of intrauterine infection. Infect Immun 78(4):1789–1796

[34] Ford AC, Moayyedi P, Hanauer SB (2013) Ulcerative colitis. BMJ 346:f432

[35] Galvão-Moreira LV, de Andrade CM, de Oliveira JFF, Bomfim MRQ, Figueiredo PMS, Branco-de-Almeida LS (2017) Sex differences in salivary parameters of caries susceptibility in healthy individuals. Oral Health Prev Dent 16(1):71–77

[36] Gaugler J, James B, Johnson T, Scholz K, Weuve J (2016) Alzheimer’s association report; Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement 12:459–509

[37] Ge X, Rodriguez R, Trinh M, Gunsolley J, Xu P (2013) Oral microbiome of deep and shallow dental pockets in chronic periodontitis. PLoS ONE 8(6):1–10

[38] Gentschew L, Ferguson LR (2012) Role of nutrition and microbiota in susceptibility to inflammatory bowel dis- eases. Mol Nutr Food Res 56:524–535

[39] Gholizadeh P, Eslami H, Yousefi M, Asgharzadeh M, Aghazadeh M, Kafil HS (2016) Role of oral microbiome on oral cancers: a review. Biomed Pharmacother 84:552–558

[40] Goodson JM, Groppo D, Halem S, Carpino E (2009) Is obesity an oral bacterial disease? J Dent Res 88(6):519–523

[41] Gordon JI, Klaenhammer TR (2011) A rendezvous with our microbes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108(Supplement 1):4513–4515

[42] Griffen AL, Beall CJ, Firestone ND, Gross EL, Difranco JM, Hardman JH, Vriesendorp B, Faust RA, Janies DA, Leys EJ (2011) CORE: a phylogenetically-curated 16S rDNA database of the core oral microbiome. PLoS ONE 6(4):e19051

[43] Hajishengallis G (2015) Periodontitis: from microbial immune subversion to systemic inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 15:30–44

[44] Han YW, Wang X (2013) Mobile microbiome: oral bacteria in extraoral infections and inflammation. J Dent Res 92:485–491

[45] Han YW, Redline RW, Li M, Yin L, Hill GB, McCormick TS (2004) Fusobacterium nucleatum induces premature and term stillbirths in pregnant mice: implication of oral bacteria in preterm birth. Infect Immunity 72(4):2272–2279

[46] Han YW, Fardini Y, Chen C, Iacampo KG, Peraino VA, Shamonki JM, Redline RW (2010) Term stillbirth caused by oral Fusobacterium nucleatum. Obstet Gynecol 115(2 Pt 2):442

[47] Hansson GK (2005) Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 352:1685–1695

[48] Hao W, Xu H, Chen X, Zhou Q, Zhang P, Chen F, Qin M (2015) Changes in dental plaque microbial richness and oral behavioral habits during caries development in young Chinese children. Caries Res 49(2):116–123

[49] Heron SE, Elahi S (2017) HIV infection and compromised mucosal immunity: oral manifestations and systemic inflammation. Front Immunol 8:241

[50] Holt SC, Ebersole J, Felton J, Brunsvold M, Kornman KS (1988) Implantation of Bacteroides gingivalis in nonhuman primates initiates progression of periodontitis. Science 239(4835):55–57

[51] HOMD Homepage (2016)

[52] Hu XS, Zhang Q, Hua H, Chen F (2016a) Changes in the salivary microbiota of oral leukoplakia and oral cancer. Oral Oncol 56:e6–e8

[53] Hu X, Zhang Q, Hua H, Chen F (2016b) Changes in the salivary microbiota of oral leukoplakia and oral cancer. Oral Oncol 56:6–8

[54] Human Microbiome Project Consortium (2012) Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature 486 (7402):207–214

[55] Human Microbiome Project Overview (2017)

[56] Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ (2005) Oral microbial communities in sickness and in health. Trends Microbiol 13(12):589

[57] Jorth P, Turner KH, Gumus P, Nizam N, Buduneli N, Whiteley M (2014) Metatranscriptomics of the human oral microbiome during health and disease. MBio 5(2):e01012–e01014

[58] Jose FA, Heyman MB (2008) Extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 46:124–133

[59] Kaistha A, Levine J (2014) Inflammatory bowel disease: the classic gastrointestinal autoimmune disease. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 44:328–334

[60] Kamer AR, Craig RG, Pirraglia E, Dasanayake AP, Norman RG, Boylan RJ, Nehorayoff A, Glodzik L, Brys M, de Leon MJ (2009) TNF-alpha and antibodies to periodontal bacteria discriminate between Alzheimer’s disease patients and normal subjects. J Neuroimmunol 216:92–97

[61] Khor B, Gardet A, Xavier RJ (2011) Genetics and pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Nature 474:307–317

[62] Koren O, Spor A, Felin J, Fåk F, Stombaugh J, Tremaroli V, Behre CJ, Knight R, Fagerberg B, Ley RE (2011) Human oral, gut, and plaque microbiota in patients with atherosclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108(Supplement 1):4592–4598

[63] Kuczynski J, Lauber CL, Walters WA, Parfrey LW, Clemente JC, Gevers D, Knight R (2012) Experimental and analytical tools for studying the human microbiome. Nat Rev Genet 13(1):47–58

[64] Lafaurie GI, Sabogal MA, Castillo DM, Rincón MV, Gómez LA, Lesmes YA, Chambrone L (2017) Microbiome and microbial biofilm profiles of peri-implantitis: a systematic review. J Periodontol 88(10):1066–1089

[65] Lassalle F, Spagnoletti M, Fumagalli M, Shaw L, Dyble M, Walker C, Thomas MG, Bamberg AMigliano F, Balloux (2017) Oral microbiomes from hunter-gatherers and traditional farmers reveal shifts in commensal balance and pathogen load linked to diet. Mol Ecol 27(1):182–195

[66] Lee WH, Chen HM, Yang SF, Liang C, Peng CY, Lin FM, Tsai LL, Wu BC, Hsin CH, Chuang CY (2017) Bacterial alterations in salivary microbiota and their association in oral cancer. Sci Rep 7:1–11

[67] Leonardi I, Li X, Semon A, Li D, Doron I, Putzel G, Bar A, Prieto D, Rescigno M, McGovern DPB (2018) CX3CR1+ mononuclear phagocytes control immunity to intestinal fungi. Science 359 (6372):232–236

[68] Li Y, Saxena D, Chen Z, Liu G, Abrams WR, Phelan JA, Norman RG, Fisch GS, Corby PM, Dewhirst F (2014) HIV infection and microbial diversity in saliva. J Clin Microbiol 52(5):1400–1411

[69] Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A (2002) Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 105(9):1135–1143

[70] Lindheim L, Bashir M, Münzker J, Trummer C, Zachhuber V, Pieber TR, Gorkiewicz G, Obermayer-Pietsch B (2016) The salivary microbiome in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and its association with disease-related parameters: a pilot study. Front Microbiol 7:1270

[71] Ling Z, Liu X, Cheng Y, Jiang X, Jiang H, Wang Y, Li L (2015) Decreased diversity of the oral microbiota of patients with Hepatitis B virus-induced chronic liver disease: a pilot project. Sci Rep 5:17098

[72] Lirajunior R, Boström EA (2018) Oral-gut connection: one step closer to an integrated view of the gastrointestinal tract? Mucosal Immunol.

[73] Liu B, Faller LL, Klitgord N, Mazumdar V, Ghodsi M, Sommer DD, Gibbons TR, Treangen TJ, Chang YC, Li S (2012) Deep sequencing of the oral microbiome reveals signatures of periodontal disease. PLoS ONE 7(6):e37919

[74] Lodi G, Scully C, Carrozzo M, Griffiths M, Sugerman PB, Thongprasom K (2005) Current controversies in oral lichen planus: report of an international consensus meeting. Part 1. Viral infections and etiopathogenesis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 100:40–51

[75] Lucas López R, Grande Burgos MJ, Gálvez A, Pérez Pulido R (2017) The human gastrointestinal tract and oral microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease: a state of the science review. Apmis 125(1):3–10

[76] Ma C, Chen F, Zhang Y, Sun X, Tong P, Si Y, Zheng S (2015) Comparison of oral microbial profiles between children with severe early childhood caries and caries-free children using the human oral microbe identification microarray. PLoS ONE 10(3): e0122075

[77] Madianos PN, Bobetsis YA, Offenbacher S (2013) Adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) and periodontal disease: pathogenic mechanisms. J Clin Periodontol 40(s14):181–194

[78] McInnes IB, Schett G (2007) Cytokines in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Immunol 7:429–442

[79] McInnes IB, Schett G (2011) The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 365:2205–2219

[80] Metcalf JL, Ursell LK, Knight R (2014) Ancient human oral plaque preserves a wealth of biological data. Nat Genet 46(4):321–323

[81] Meurman J (2010) Oral microbiota and cancer. J Oral Microbiol 2:1–10

[82] Miklossy J (1993) Alzheimer’s disease—a spirochetosis. NeuroReport 4:841–848

[83] Mitchell Lewis D, Engebretson SP, Chen J, Lamster IB, Papapanou PN (2001) Periodontal infections and preterm birth: early findings from a cohort of young minority women in New York. Eur J Oral Sci 109(1):34–39

[84] Nagy K, Sonkodi I, Szöke I, Nagy E, Newman H (1998) The microflora associated with human oral carcinomas. Oral Oncol 34 (4):304–308

[85] Neuman MG, Nanau RM (2012) Inflammatory bowel dis- ease: role of diet, microbiota, life style. Transl Res 160:29–44

[86] Ogawa T, Hirose Y, Honda-Ogawa M, Sugimoto M, Sasaki S, Kibi M, Kawabata S, Ikebe K, Maeda Y (2018) Composition of salivary microbiota in elderly subjects. Sci Rep 8(1):414

[87] Okada Y, Wu D, Trynka G, Raj T, Terao C, Ikari K, Kochi Y, Ohmura K, Suzuki A, Yoshida S (2014) Genetics of rheumatoid arthritis contributes to biology and drug discovery. Nature 506:376–381

[88] Paster BJ, Olsen I, Aas JA, Dewhirst FE (2006) The breadth of bacterial diversity in the human periodontal pocket and other oral sites. Periodontol. 2000(42):80–87

[89] Peters BA, Wu J, Pei Z, Yang L, Purdue MP, Freedman ND, Jacobs EJ, Gapstur SM, Hayes RB, Ahn J (2017) Oral Microbiome composition reflects prospective risk for esophageal cancers. Cancer Res 77(23):6777–6787

[90] Peters BA, Wu J, Pei Z, Yang L, Purdue MP, Freedman ND, Jacobs EJ, Gapstur SM, Hayes RB, Ahn J (2009) The NIH Human Microbiome Project. Genome Res 19(12):2317–2323

[91] Philip N, Suneja B, Walsh LJ (2018) Ecological approaches to dental caries prevention: paradigm shift or shibboleth? Caries Res 52 (1–2):153–165

[92] Pickard JM, Zeng MY, Caruso R, Núñez G (2017) Gut microbiota: role in pathogen colonization, immune responses and inflammatory disease. Immunol Rev 279:70–89

[93] Pihlstrom BL, Michalowicz BS, Johnson NW (2005) Periodontal diseases. Lancet 366:1809–1820

[94] Plaza-Díaz J, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ, Gil-Campos M, Gil A (2018) Immunemediated mechanisms of action of probiotics and synbiotics in treating pediatric intestinal diseases. Nutrients.

[95] Poole S, Singhrao SK, Kesavalu L, Curtis MA, Crean S (2013) Determining the presence of periodontopathic virulence factors in short-term postmortem Alzheimer’s disease brain tissue. J Alzheimers Dis 36:665–677

[96] Pozhitkov AE, Leroux BG, Randolph TW, Beikler T, Flemmig TF, Noble PA (2015) Towards microbiome transplant as a therapy for periodontitis: an exploratory study of periodontitis microbial signature contrasted by oral health, caries and edentulism. BMC Oral Health 15:125

[97] Qin N, Yang F, Li A, Prifti E, Chen Y, Shao L, Guo J, Le Chatelier E, Yao J, Wu L (2014) Alterations of the human gut microbiome in liver cirrhosis. Nature 513(7516):59–64

[98] Radford-Smith G, Pandeya N (2006) Associations between NOD2/CARD15 genotype and phenotype in Crohn’s disease—are we there yet? World J Gastroenterol 12:7097–7103

[99] Raychaudhuri S, Sandor C, Stahl EA, Freudenberg J, Lee HS, Jia X, Alfredsson L, Padyukov L, Klareskog L, Worthington J (2012) Five amino acids in three HLA proteins explain most of the association between MHC and seropositive rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Genet 44:291–296

[100] Reddy RM, Weir WB, Barnett S, Heiden BT, Orringer MB, Lin J, Chang AC, Carrott PW, Lynch WR, Beer DG (2018) Increased variance in oral and gastric microbiome correlates with esophagectomy anastomotic leak. Ann Thorac Surg 105(3):865–870

[101] Reichart PA, Schmidt-Westhausen AM, Khongkhunthian P, Strietzel FP (2016) Dental implants in patients with oral mucosal diseases- a systematic review. J Oral Rehabil 43:388–399

[102] Riviere GR, Riviere KH, Smith KS (2002) Molecular and immunological evidence of oral Treponema in the human brain and their association with Alzheimer’s disease. Oral Microbiol Immunol 17:113–118

[103] Rogers AB, Fox JG (2004) Inflammation and cancer. I. Rodent models of infectious gastrointestinal and liver cancer. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 286:G361–G366

[104] Roszyk E, Puszczewicz M (2017) Role of human microbiome and selected bacterial infections in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Reumatologia 55(5):242–250

[105] Rylander H, Ramberg P, Blohme G, Lindhe J (1986) Prevalence of periodontal disease in young diabetics. J Clin Periodontol 14:38–43

[106] Said HS, Suda W, Nakagome S, Chinen H, Oshima K, Kim S, Kimura R, Iraha A, Ishida H, Fujita J (2014) Dysbiosis of salivary microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease and its association with oral immunological biomarkers. DNA Res 21:15–25

[107] Saikaly SS (2018) Recurrent aphthous ulceration: a review of potential causes and novel treatments. J Dermatol Treat.

[108] Sparks Stein P, Steffen MJ, Smith C, Jicha G, Ebersole JL, Abner E, Dawson D III (2012) Serum antibodies to periodontal pathogens are a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement 8:196–203

[109] Thorstensson H, Hugoson A (1993) Periodontal disease experience in adult long-duration insulin-dependent diabetics. J Clin Periodontol 20:352–358

[110] Topcuoglu N, Kulekci G (2015) 16S rRNA based microarray analysis of ten periodontal bacteria in patients with different forms of periodontitis. Anaerobe 35:35–40

[111] Tsai CY, Tang CY, Tan TS, Chen KH, Liao KH, Liou ML (2016) Subgingival microbiota in individuals with severe chronic periodontitis. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 51(2):226–234

[112] Ussar S, Fujisaka S, Kahn CR (2016) Interactions between host genetics and gut microbiome in diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Mol. Metab 5:795–803

[113] Veloso FT (2011) Extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease: do they influence treatment and outcome? World J Gastroenterol 17:2702–2707

[114] Viatte S, Plant D, Raychaudhuri S (2013) Genetics and epigenetics of rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 9:141–153

[115] Wang K, Lu W, Tu Q, Ge Y, He J, Zhou Y, Gou Y, Van Nostrand JD, Qin Y, Li J (2016) Preliminary analysis of salivary microbiome and their potential roles in oral lichen planus. Sci Rep 6:22943–22952

[116] Wang Y, Zhang J, Chen X, Jiang W, Wang S, Xu L, Tu Y, Zheng P, Wang Y, Lin X (2017) Profiling of oral microbiota in early childhood caries using single-molecule real-time sequencing. Front Microbiol 8:2244

[117] Warinner C, Rodrigues JF, Vyas R, Trachsel C, Shved N, Grossmann J, Radini A, Hancock Y, Tito RY, Fiddyment S (2014) Pathogens and host immunity in the ancient human oral cavity. Nat Genet 46(4):336–344

[118] Wasfi R, Abd El-Rahman OA, Zafer MM, Ashour HM (2018) Probiotic Lactobacillus sp. inhibit growth, biofilm formation and gene expression of caries-inducing Streptococcus mutans. J Cell Mol Med 22(3):1972–1983

[119] Xiao E, Mattos M, Vieira GHA, Chen S, Corrêa JD, Wu Y, Albiero ML, Bittinger K, Graves DT (2017) Diabetes enhances IL-17 expression and alters the oral microbiome to increase its pathogenicity. Cell Host Microbe 22(1):120–128

[120] Xu H, Hao WJ, Zhou Q, Wang WH, Xia ZK, Liu C, Chen XC, Qin M (2014) Chen F Plaque bacterial microbiome diversity in children younger than 30 months with or without caries prior to eruption of second primary molars. PLoS ONE 9(2):e89269

[121] Yang SF, Huang HD, Fan WL, Jong YJ, Chen MK, Huang CN, Chuang CY, Kuo YL, Chung WH, Su SC (2018) Compositional and functional variations of oral microbiota associated with the mutational changes in oral cancer. Oral Oncol 77:1–8

[122] Yeoh S-A, Dias SS, Isenberg DA (2018) Advances in systemic lupus erythematosus. Medicine 46(2):84–92

[123] Zarco MF, Vess TJ, Ginsburg GS (2012) The oral microbiome in health and disease and the potential impact on personalized dental medicine. Oral Dis 18(2):109–120

[124] Zhang X, Zhang D, Jia H, Feng Q, Wang D, Liang D, Wu X, Li J, Tang L, Li Y(2015) The oral and gut microbiomes are perturbed in rheumatoid arthritis and partly normalized after treatment. Nat Med 21(8):895–905

[125] Zheng H, Xu LX, Wang ZC, Li LS, Zhang JN, Zhang Q, Chen T, Lin JX, Chen F (2015) Subgingival microbiome in patients with healthy and ailing dental implants. Sci Rep 5:10948

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s) 2018