The Recyclability of Wind Turbine Blade Material, Manufacturing Process, and Recycling Technology

Abstract

As wind energy continues to be deployed at a significantly increasing rate, the number of decommissioned wind turbines is expected to increase accordingly. To improve material efficiency, a large amount of waste requires appropriate identification and recycling, particularly the composite materials used in wind turbine blades (WTB). This study focuses on two life cycle stages, manufacturing and the decommissioning stage, which contribute most to the waste generation of WTB. This study investigates the material efficiency factors in WTB and organises fragmental information in manufacturing waste management, focusing on the recycling factor and quantifying the recyclability of wind turbine blade material regarding the different recycling technologies. This study fills the gap in existing research by evaluating recycling methods for specified carbon fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) and glass fibre-reinforced polymers (GFRPs) using a revised recyclability index. Additionally, innovative sustainable materials and recent composite recycling studies have also been incorporated into the quantification and evaluation to update the current progress. The current source of WTB post-production waste, the corresponding disposal method, and opportunities were also reviewed and identified. The findings quantified recyclability and revealed that the recyclability of WTB materials varies significantly depending on the specific composite type and the recycling method employed. Furthermore, the calculated recyclability, combined with other factors such as global warming potential (GWP), cost, and technology readiness level (TRL), is discussed, along with the potential for improving material efficiency by selecting future material recycling technology and effective manufacturing waste management.

Keywords

Wind energy / Composites recycling / Wind turbine blades material / Recyclability / Blades manufacturing waste / Wind turbine

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the financial support of China Scholarship Council.

Author Contributions

J.L.: Conceptualization, Methodogy, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing, Visualization, Funding acquisition. C.Z.: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. S.Z.: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration. L.J.: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Ethics Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available on request.

Funding

This research was funded by the China Scholarship Council File No. [202308060213].

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References

[1] Hao S, Kuah AT, Rudd CD, Wong KH, Lai NY, Mao J, et al. A circular economy approach to green energy: Wind turbine, waste, and material recovery. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 702, 135054. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135054.

[2] Lima da Cunha CE. EU Outlook on Wind Energy Research: A Case for Circularity. 2019. Available online: https://etipwind.eu/files/events/210504-Sustainability%20workshop/Presentations/Session%204/210504-ETIPWind-workshop-circularity-Carlos-Eduardo-Lima-EC.pdf accessed on 11 December 2024).

[3] Kirchherr J, Reike D, Hekkert M. Conceptualizing the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 127, 221-232. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005.

[4] WindEurope. Accelerating Wind Turbine Blade Circularity. Available online: https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/reports/WindEurope-Accelerating-wind-turbine-blade-circularity.pdf accessed on 7 October 2020).

[5] Tyurkay A, Kirkelund GM, Lima ATM. State-of-the-art circular economy practices for end-of-life wind turbine blades for use in the construction industry. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2024, 47, 17-36. doi:10.1016/j.spc.2024.03.018.

[6] Bennet L. SUSTAINABLE DECOMMISSIONING: WIND TURBINE BLADE RECYCLING. 2021. Available online: https://cms.ore.catapult.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/CORE_Full_Blade_Report_web.pdf#page=26.08 accessed on 26 December 2024).

[7] Jensen JP, Skelton K. Wind turbine blade recycling: Experiences, challenges and possibilities in a circular economy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 97, 165-176. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.08.041.

[8] Beauson J, Lilholt H, Brøndsted P. Recycling solid residues recovered from glass fibre-reinforced composites—A review applied to wind turbine blade materials. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2014, 33, 1542-1556. doi:10.1177/0731684414537131.

[9] Beauson J, Madsen B, Toncelli C, Brøndsted P, Bech JI. Recycling of shredded composites from wind turbine blades in new thermoset polymer composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2016, 90, 390-399. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.07.009.

[10] Jensen JP. Evaluating the environmental impacts of recycling wind turbines. Wind. Energy 2019, 22, 316-326. doi:10.1002/we.2287.

[11] Mishnaevsky Jr L, Branner K, Petersen HN, Beauson J, McGugan M, Sørensen BF. Materials for Wind Turbine Blades: An Overview. Materials 2017, 10, 1285. doi:10.3390/ma10111285.

[12] Hu Y, Zhang Y, Li Y, Wang Y, Li G, Liu X. Wind turbine blade recycling: A review of the recovery and high-value utilization of decommissioned wind turbine blades. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2024, 210, 107813. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107813.

[13] Woo SM, Whale J. A mini-review of end-of-life management of wind turbines: Current practices and closing the circular economy gap. Waste Manag. Res. 2022, 40, 1730-1744. doi:10.1177/0734242X221105434.

[14] Shahbazi S, Salloum M, Kurdve M, Wiktorsson M. Material Efficiency Measurement: Empirical Investigation of Manufacturing Industry. Procedia Manuf. 2017, 8, 112-120. doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2017.02.014.

[15] Allwood JM, et al. Material efficiency: A white paper. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2011, 55, 362-381. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.11.002.

[16] Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Towards the Circular Economy Vol. An Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition. 2013. Available online: https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/towards-the-circular-economy-vol-1-an-economic-and-business-rationale-for-an accessed on 21 November 2023).

[17] Corona B, Shen L, Reike D, Carreón JR, Worrell E. Towards sustainable development through the circular economy—A review and critical assessment on current circularity metrics. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 151, 104498. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104498.

[18] Schischke K, Berwald A, Dimitrova G, Rückschloss J, Nissen NF, Schneider-Ramelow M. Durability, reparability and recyclability: Applying material efficiency standards EN 4555x to mobile phones and tablet computers. Procedia CIRP 2022, 105, 619-624. doi:10.1016/j.procir.2022.02.103.

[19] International Energy Agency. Energy Technology Perspectives 2008: Scenarios & Strategies to 2050; OECD/IEA: Paris, France, 2008. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2008 accessed on 1 April 2025).

[20] Branfoot C, Folkvord H, Keith M, Leeke GA. Recovery of chemical recyclates from fibre-reinforced composites: A review of progress. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2023, 215, 110447. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2023.110447.

[21] Yang W, Kim K-H, Lee J. Upcycling of decommissioned wind turbine blades through pyrolysis. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 376, 134292. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134292.

[22] Liu P, Meng F, Barlow CY. Wind turbine blade end-of-life options: An economic comparison. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 180, 106202. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106202.

[23] Sommer V, Becker T, Walther G. Steering Sustainable End-of-Life Treatment of Glass and Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics Waste from Rotor Blades of Wind Power Plants. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 181, 106077. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.106077.

[24] Wei Y, Hadigheh SA. Cost benefit and life cycle analysis of CFRP and GFRP waste treatment methods. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 348, 128654. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128654.

[25] Maris E, Froelich D. Critical Analysis of Existing Recyclability Assessment Methods for New Products in Order to Define a Reference Method. In REWAS 2013:Enabling Materials Resource Sustainability; Kvithyld A, Meskers C, Krumdick G. Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 202-216. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48763-2_22.

[26] Liu P, Barlow CY. Wind turbine blade waste in 2050. Waste Manag. 2017, 62, 229-240. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2017.02.007.

[27] Skjolde S, Vinningland I. Circular Economy in the Offshore Wind Industry: Understanding the Predominant Focus on End-of-Life Strategies. Master Thesis. NTNU. 2023. Available online: https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/handle/11250/3102812 accessed on 28 November 2023).

[28] Brøndsted P, Lilholt H, Lystrup A. COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR WIND POWER TURBINE BLADES. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2005, 35, 505-538. doi:10.1146/annurev.matsci.35.100303.110641.

[29] Oliver N-P. Cornwall FLOW Accelerator: Wind Turbine Blades Design and Manufacturing, Current State-of-the-Art Literature Review. 2022. Available online: https://ore.catapult.org.uk/ accessed on 16 July 2024).

[30] Griffin DA. Current Research and Development Efforts for Large Wind Turbine Blades. In International SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition; SAMPE 1999:Diamond Bar, CA, USA, 2003; pp. 2639-2652.

[31] Attaf B. Recent Advances in Composite Materials for Wind Turbine Blades; The World Academic Publishing Co., Ltd.: Singapore, 2013.

[32] Manwell JF, McGowan JG, Rogers AL. Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010.

[33] Ancona D, McVeigh J. Wind Turbine-Materials and Manufacturing Fact Sheet. Princeton Energy Resources International, LLC, 19. 2001. Available online: http://www.perihq.com/documents/WindTurbine-MaterialsandManufacturing_FactSheet.pdf accessed on 21 October 2024).

[34] Firoozi AA, Firoozi AA, Hejazi F. Innovations in Wind Turbine Blade Engineering: Exploring Materials, Sustainability, and Market Dynamics. Sustainability 2024, 16, 8564. doi:10.3390/su16198564.

[35] Rajeshkumar G, Seshadri SA, Keerthi TKG. Recycling and Biodegradation Studies of Epoxy/Natural Fiber Composites. In Handbook of Epoxy/Fiber Composites; Mavinkere Rangappa S, Parameswaranpillai J, Siengchin S, Thomas S, Eds.; Springer Nature: Singapore, 2022; pp. 837-850. doi:10.1007/978-981-19-3603-6_49.

[36] Zhao X, et al. Recycling of natural fiber composites: Challenges and opportunities. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 177, 105962. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105962.

[37] Snowberg D, Berry D, Swan D, Mingfu Z, Nolet S, Adams D, et al. IACMI Project 4.2: Thermoplastic Composite Development for Wind Turbine Blades; Institute for Advanced Composites Manufacturing Innovation (IACMI): Knoxville, TN,USA, 2021. doi:10.2172/1834393.

[38] Clarke RW, Rognerud EG, Puente-Urbina A, Barnes D, Murdy P, McGraw ML, et al. Manufacture and testing of biomass-derivable thermosets for wind blade recycling. Science 2024, 385, 854-860. doi:10.1126/science.adp5395.

[39] Brondsted P, Nijssen RPL. Advances in Wind Turbine Blade Design and Materials; Elsevier Science & Technology: San Diego, UK, 2013. Available online: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/plymouth/detail.action?docID=1574945 accessed on 28 August 2024).

[40] Ansys Granta Materials Data. 2024. Available online: https://www.ansys.com/resource-center/brochure/granta-data-products-overview accessed on 5 December 2024).

[41] Holmes JW, Brøndsted P, Sørensen BF, Jiang Z, Sun Z, Chen X. Development of a Bamboo-Based Composite as a Sustainable Green Material for Wind Turbine Blades. Wind. Eng. 2009, 33, 197-210. doi:10.1260/030952409789141053.

[42] Shah D, Schubel P, Clifford M, Licence P. Fatigue characterisation of natural fibre composites for small-scale wind turbine blade applications. ECCM 2012—Composites at Venice. In Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Composite Materials, Venice, Italy, 24-28 June 2012.

[43] Alam T, Golmohammadzadeh R, Faraji F, Shahabuddin M. E-Waste Recycling Technologies:An Overview, Challenges and Future Perspectives. In Paradigm Shift in E-Waste Management; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2022.

[44] Oliveux G, Dandy LO, Leeke GA. Current status of recycling of fibre reinforced polymers: Review of technologies, reuse and resulting properties. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2015, 72, 61-99. doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.01.004.

[45] Fonte R, Xydis G. Wind turbine blade recycling: An evaluation of the European market potential for recycled composite materials. J. Environ. Manag. 2021, 287, 112269. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112269.

[46] Pickering SJ, Kelly RM, Kennerley JR, Rudd CD, Fenwick NJ. A fluidised-bed process for the recovery of glass fibres from scrap thermoset composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2000, 60, 509-523. doi:10.1016/S0266-3538(99)00154-2.

[47] Liu P, Meng F, Barlow CY. Wind turbine blade end-of-life options: An eco-audit comparison. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 212, 1268-1281. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.043.

[48] Beauson J, Laurent A, Rudolph DP, Jensen JP. The complex end-of-life of wind turbine blades: A review of the European context. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 155, 111847. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2021.111847.

[49] Mativenga PT, Shuaib NA, Howarth J, Pestalozzi F, Woidasky J. High voltage fragmentation and mechanical recycling of glass fibre thermoset composite. CIRP Ann. 2016, 65, 45-48. doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2016.04.107.

[50] Shah A, Patel V, Usha G. Employing Machine Learning to Identify Waste Characteristics. In Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Intelligent Data Communication Technologies and Internet of Things (IDCIoT), Bengaluru, India, 5-7 January 2023; pp. 351-356. doi: 10.1109/IDCIoT56793.2023.10053527.

[51] Rybicka J, Tiwari A, Campo P, Howarth J. Capturing composites manufacturing waste flows through process mapping. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 91, 251-261. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.12.033.

[52] Nokele AK, Sebola-Samanyanga J. Waste Minimisation through Sustainable Manufacturing. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Nsukka, Nigeria, 5-7 April 2022. doi:10.46254/af03.20220181.

[53] Upadhyayula VKK, Gadhamshetty V, Athanassiadis D, Tysklind M, Meng F, Pan Q, et al. Wind Turbine Blades Using Recycled Carbon Fibers: An Environmental Assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 56, 1267-1277. doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c05462.

[54] Goetsch H. ESTIMATING MANUFACTURING ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND EMISSIONS. 27 July. 2023. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-07/2023-04-14%20-%20Manufacturing%20Energy%20and%20Emissions%20PDF_0.pdf accessed on 12 May 2025).

[55] Liu P, Barlow CY. The environmental impact of wind turbine blades. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 139, 012032. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/139/1/012032.

[56] Rosa ADL, Valente C, Aradoaei M. Environmental, Economic, and Social Life Cycle Assessment in the Polymer Composites Sector. In Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE International Conference And Exposition On Electric And Power Engineering (EPEi), Iasi, Romania, 17-19 October 2024; pp. 29-36. doi:10.1109/EPEi63510.2024.10758166.

[57] Lorna. New 2024 UK Grid Emissions Factors, ITPEnergised. 2024. Available online: https://www.itpenergised.com/new-2024-uk-grid-emissions-factors/ accessed on 6 December 2024).

[58] Moutik B, Summerscales J, Graham-Jones J, Pemberton R. Quality assessment of life cycle inventory data for fibre-reinforced polymer composite materials. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2024, 49, 474-491. doi:10.1016/j.spc.2024.07.005.

[59] Fernandes AP, Prado KS, Castanho MN, Paiva JM. Preparation and Characterization of Polymeric Composites Assembled from Fiberglass Fabric Waste from the Wind Blades Manufacturing Process. Fibers Polym. 2022, 23, 3606-3614. doi:10.1007/s12221-022-4425-4.

[60] Leal JM, Pompidou S, Charbuillet C, Perry N. Product Recoverability: A Review of Assessment Methods. Procedia CIRP 2018, 69, 710-715. doi:10.1016/j.procir.2017.11.061.

[61] Villalba G, et al. A proposal for quantifying the recyclability of materials. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2002, 37, 39-53. doi:10.1016/S0921-3449(02)00056-3.

[62] Ashby M, Coulter P, Ball N, Bream C. Granta EduPack Eco Audit Tool: A White Paper; ANSYS Inc.: Canonsburg, PA, USA, 2021.

[63] Umeda Y, Fukushige S, Mizuno T, Matsuyama Y. Generating design alternatives for increasing recyclability of products. CIRP Ann. 2013, 62, 135-138. doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2013.03.060.

[64] Oyasato N, Kobayashi H, Haruki K. Development of recyclability evaluation tool. In Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, Tokyo, Japan, 11-15 December 2001; pp. 303-308. doi:10.1109/ECODIM.2001.992370.

[65] BSI. EN 45555:2019—General Methods for Assessing the Recyclability and Recoverability of Energy-Related Products. 2019. Available online: https://standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/cen/a6432062-6e44-4011-9720-fcbc99e61feb/en-45555-2019 accessed on 6 January 2025).

[66] Pender K, Bacharoudis K, Romoli F, Greaves P, Fuller J. Feasibility of Natural Fibre Usage for Wind Turbine Blade Components: A Structural and Environmental Assessment. Sustainability 2024, 16, 5533. doi:10.3390/su16135533.

[67] Wang Y, Cui X, Ge H, Yang Y, Wang Y, Zhang C, et al. Chemical Recycling of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composites via Selective Cleavage of the Carbon-Nitrogen Bond. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2015, 3, 3332-3337. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00949.

[68] Henry L, Schneller A, Doerfler J, Mueller WM, Aymonier C, Horn S. Semi-continuous flow recycling method for carbon fibre reinforced thermoset polymers by near- and supercritical solvolysis. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2016, 133, 264-274. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2016.09.002.

[69] Cousins DS, Suzuki Y, Murray RE, Samaniuk JR, Stebner AP. Recycling glass fiber thermoplastic composites from wind turbine blades. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 209, 1252-1263. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.286.

[70] Zabihi O, Ahmadi M, Liu C, Mahmoodi R, Li Q, Naebe M. Development of a low cost and green microwave assisted approach towards the circular carbon fibre composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 2020, 184, 107750. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107750.

[71] Ballout W, Sallem-Idrissi N, Sclavons M, Doneux C, Bailly C, Pardoen T, et al. High performance recycled CFRP composites based on reused carbon fabrics through sustainable mild solvolysis route. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 5928. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-09932-0.

[72] Windmark C, Lattanzi L, Månberger A, Jarfors AE. Investigation on Resource-Efficient Aluminium Recycling—A State of the Art Review. In SPS 2022; IOS Press: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2022; pp. 15-27. doi:10.3233/ATDE220122.

[73] Bhadoria S, Maurya A. Mterials for Wind Turbine Blades, Loading and Manufacturing Methods. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 2020, 8, 2278-0181. doi:10.17577/IJERTCONV8IS10055.

[74] Howarth J, Mareddy SSR, Mativenga PT. Energy intensity and environmental analysis of mechanical recycling of carbon fibre composite. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 81, 46-50. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.06.023.

[75] Åkesson D, Foltynowicz Z, Christéen J, Skrifvars M. Microwave pyrolysis as a method of recycling glass fibre from used blades of wind turbines. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2012, 31, 1136-1142. doi:10.1177/0731684412453512.

[76] Meng F, McKechnie J, Turner TA, Pickering SJ. Energy and environmental assessment and reuse of fluidised bed recycled carbon fibres. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2017, 100, 206-214. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2017.05.008.

[77] Meng F, Olivetti EA, Zhao Y, Chang JC, Pickering SJ, McKechnie J. Comparing Life Cycle Energy and Global Warming Potential of Carbon Fiber Composite Recycling Technologies and Waste Management Options. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2018, 6, 9854-9865. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b01026.

[78] Babu KS, Raju NS, Reddy MS, Rao DN. THE MATERIAL SELECTION FOR TYPICAL WIND TURBINE BLADES USING A MADM APPROACH& ANALYSIS OF BLADES. Available online: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/THE-MATERIAL-SELECTION-FOR-TYPICAL-WIND-TURBINE-A-Babu-Raju/1a97767665245a9cec4302a9e5f660f3bd15a06b accessed on 14 October 2024).

[79] Merck. Merck—The Vibrant Science & Technology Company. 2025. Available online: https://www.merckgroup.com:443/en.html accessed on 5 May 2025).

[80] Shen Y, Apraku SE, Zhu Y. Recycling and recovery of fiber-reinforced polymer composites for end-of-life wind turbine blade management. Green Chem. 2023, 25, 9644-9658. doi:10.1039/d3gc03479h.

[81] Xu Y, Wang F, Liang D, Lv G, Chen C. A comprehensive review of waste wind turbine blades in China: Current status and resource utilization. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 113077. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2024.113077.

[82] Pickering SJ. Recycling technologies for thermoset composite materials—Current status. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2006, 37, 1206-1215. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.05.030.

[83] Ren Y, Xu L, Shang X, Shen Z, Fu R, Li W, et al. Evaluation of Mechanical Properties and Pyrolysis Products of Carbon Fibers Recycled by Microwave Pyrolysis. ACS Omega 2022, 7, 13529-13537. doi:10.1021/acsomega.1c06652.

[84] Gao W, Liu J, Luan M, Ou T, Qian J. Epoxy Resin Composition for Wind Turbine Blade and Composite Material. 2021. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/CN105670223B/en accessed on 9 April 2025).

[85] Pender K, Yang L. Glass fibre composites recycling using the fluidised bed: A study into the economic viability in the UK. Clean Technol. Recycl. 2023, 3, 221-240.

[86] Hao C, Zhao B, Guo X, Zhang S, Fei M, Shao L, et al. Mild chemical recycling of waste wind turbine blade for direct reuse in production of thermoplastic composites with enhanced performance. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2025, 215, 108159. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108159.

[87] Piotrowska K, Piasecka I. Specification of Environmental Consequences of the Life Cycle of Selected Post-Production Waste of Wind Power Plants Blades. Materials 2021, 14, 4975. doi:10.3390/ma14174975.

[88] Pender K, Yang L. Glass Fibre Composites Recycling Using the Fluidised Bed: A Comparative Study into the Carbon Footprint in the UK. Sustainability 2024, 16, 1016. doi:10.3390/su16031016.

[89] Lewis C, Yavuz BO, Longana ML, Belnoue JP, Ramakrishnan KR, Ward C, et al. A Review on the Modelling of Aligned Discontinuous Fibre Composites. J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8, 318.