Poly(disulfide)s represent a class of dynamic polymers whose synthesis is facilitated by the reversible exchange and recombination of disulfide bonds. This unique polymerization mechanism, combined with the structural flexibility of cyclic disulfide monomers and the diversity of ring-opening polymerization (ROP) methods, enables precise control over polymer architecture and functionality. The resulting materials exhibit remarkable characteristics including reversible redox-responsiveness, tunable degradation kinetics, self-healing capabilities, and enhanced cellular uptake efficiency. This review systematically examines the fundamental aspects of poly(disulfide)s, beginning with the design principles of monomer structures and progressing through various ROP strategies such as thermal, photo-initiated, and catalyst-mediated approaches. We critically analyze how these synthetic parameters influence key polymer properties including molecular weight distribution, stimulus responsiveness, and biocompatibility. The application potential of poly(disulfide)s in drug delivery is comprehensively explored, with particular focus on their performance in nucleic acid delivery systems for gene therapy, protein and peptide delivery for biotherapeutic applications, and small molecule drug carriers for enhanced therapeutic efficacy. By integrating recent advances in polymer chemistry with biomedical engineering perspectives, this review aims to provide valuable insights for the rational design of poly(disulfide)-based delivery platforms and their translation into clinical applications.

Herbal extracts often demonstrate promising in vitro activity but limited in vivo efficacy due to poor solubility, permeability, and stability. Phytosomal delivery systems offer a strategy to increase the transdermal delivery and bioavailability. This study aimed to develop and optimize a Leucas aspera phytosomal thermogel for improved topical treatment of psoriasis. Phytosomes were-prepared from phospholipid complexes and optimized via a Box–Behnken design. The optimized formulation was evaluated for vesicle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE), in vitro drug release, and skin deposition. Anti-psoriatic efficacy was assessed in an imiquimod induced psoriasis mouse model through PASI scoring, ear thickness measurement, organ index analysis, transepidermal water loss and hydration studies, and histopathology. The optimized PHY gel exhibited a particle size of 92.23 ± 9.1 nm, zeta potential of −32.45 ± 0.43 mV, EE of 89.1 ± 4.6%, and cumulative drug release of 94.5 ± 1.3%. Skin deposition was significantly greater (82.61 ± 1.86%) than that of the unmodified extract gel. In vivo, the phytosome gel reduced imiquimod induced psoriasis severity, demonstrating efficacy comparable to that of the reference formulation. Overall, the Leucas aspera phytosome gel significantly improved dermal delivery and therapeutic efficacy, highlighting phytosomal systems as a promising platform for topical psoriasis therapy.

To identify effective drugs for breast cancer treatment, it is essential to establish physiologically relevant models. Traditional models based on 2D cultures or 3D scaffold-free spheroids lack the crucial cell–extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions, known to significantly impact drug sensitivity. A newly developed 3D culture format using a network of the recombinant spider silk protein FN-silk has demonstrated ECM-like interactions and maintenance of subtype-specific marker expression in breast cancer cells. In the current study, chemotherapy drug treatment experiments were conducted on the breast cancer cell lines MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, and SK-BR-3 cultured in 2D, spheroids, and FN-silk networks. The results suggest that FN-silk networks hold promise as a base for an in vitro 3D model assessing the effects of chemotherapeutic agents. Comparing drug responses revealed that cells cultured in FN-silk networks were generally less sensitive to the drugs tested—as compared to 2D cultures—suggesting that FN-silk-supported 3D culture could have higher clinical relevance. Moreover, the results showed improved reproducibility with FN-silk networks compared to spheroids. This study concludes that FN-silk networks have the potential to support the establishment of a valuable 3D tumor model for the development of personalized breast cancer treatments and thereby contribute to improved success rates in drug development.

Glaucoma is a chronic optic neuropathy characterized by progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss and visual field deterioration, with elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) representing the primary modifiable risk factor. Conventional topical pharmacotherapy, while effective in lowering IOP, suffers from poor ocular bioavailability (< 5%), frequent dosing requirements, and suboptimal patient adherence. Here we review the evolution of ocular drug delivery systems for glaucoma management, encompassing both clinically available platforms and emerging nanotechnological approaches. Clinically deployed modalities—including medicated contact lenses, ocular inserts, punctal plugs, and surgical implants—have advanced from simple sustained-release devices to sophisticated platforms capable of targeted, prolonged drug delivery to the anterior segment. Concurrently, novel systems based on nanoparticles, dendrimers, liposomes, hydrogels, and stimuli-responsive materials are being developed to overcome ocular barriers, enhance corneal penetration, and enable spatiotemporally controlled drug release. These innovations promise to transform glaucoma therapy by reducing dosing frequency, minimizing systemic side effects, and improving long-term patient compliance. However, clinical translation faces formidable challenges, including manufacturing scalability, sterilization stability, and rigorous safety validation. This review provides a comprehensive framework for understanding current and future drug delivery strategies, highlighting how biomaterial engineering and nanomedicine are reshaping the therapeutic landscape for this chronic, sight-threatening disease.

Hydrogels have emerged as promising candidates for infected wound repair owing to their injectability and in situ gelation properties. In this study, an injectable, in situ forming hydrogel, PGBP, was designed and fabricated based on polyglutamic acid (PGA), and its efficacy in accelerating infected wound healing was evaluated. The PGB polymer was synthesized via amidation of PGA with N-methacryloyl-1,6-hexanediamine (MHB), followed by crosslinking with 4-arm-PEG-SH through Michael addition to form PGBP. The resulting hydrogel exhibited a porous three-dimensional network, high swelling capacity and water retention, excellent blood compatibility, and suitable mechanical properties for wound coverage. When loaded with amikacin (Ami), the Ami@PGBP hydrogel demonstrated potent in vitro antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, along with a sustained drug release profile. Moreover, PGBP significantly enhanced the cellular antioxidant capacity of RAW 264.7 cells, scavenged free radicals (DPPH, ABTS, and •OH), reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α), and promoted the migration of co-cultured RAW264.7 and C166 cells. In a murine full-thickness infected wound model, Ami@PGBP treatment accelerated wound closure, promoted re-epithelialization and collagen deposition, facilitated skin appendage regeneration, and markedly downregulated both local and systemic inflammatory markers. In vivo biosafety assessments confirmed the hydrogel's biocompatibility and complete biodegradation within 15 days, with no observed adverse effects. Therefore, Ami@PGBP exhibits considerable potential as a multifunctional, safe, and effective dressing for the management of infected wounds.

Tubular tissues, including the trachea, pulmonary artery, and coronary artery, possess the complex branched geometries crucial for physiological functions. This study presents a rigorous quantitative framework for evaluating the geometric accuracy of 3D-printed tubular models. By leveraging high-resolution CT imaging and computational reconstruction, the framework provides a high-fidelity basis for simulating coronary blood flow. Utilizing Mimics and 3-matic software, anatomical structures were converted into 3D STL files. Accuracy was assessed by comparing these files to the original DICOM images and subsequently comparing 3D-printed physical models back to the digital STL counterparts via multi-axial measurements at identical anatomical landmarks along the X, Y, and Z axes. Statistical validation, including linear regression, Pearson's correlation, ICC, and Bland–Altman plots, revealed the excellent geometric fidelity (r² > 0.99, ICC = 0.98) with negligible localized deformations. Furthermore, we integrated coronary blood flow-perfusion simulation under the normal and diseased conditions to demonstrate the potential of the reconstructed model as a non-invasive tool for diagnosis and treatment planning. These findings validate the precision and reliability of high-fidelity 3D-printed tubular as reliable tools for preoperative planning, personalized surgical simulation, and advanced medical education. Also, this study provided a robust platform for improving clinical outcomes in complex branched tissue interventions.