Photodynamic and Photothermal Effects of MXene Ti₃C₂T_x Under 460/808nm Light Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Abstract

The emergence and widespread development of drug-resistant bacteria pose significant challenges to global public health. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most typical multidrug-resistant bacteria, capable of causing life-threatening diseases and exhibiting insensitivity to multiple antibiotics. Therefore, the development of antibiotic-independent antimicrobial approaches is critically important. MXene Ti₃C₂T_x, a promising two-dimensional nanomaterial, possesses both photothermal and photodynamic effects. In this study, we investigated the photodynamic and photothermal mechanism of MXene Ti₃C₂T_x against MRSA under irradiation with two different light sources: 460 nm short-wavelength blue light and 808 nm near-infrared light. Here, we prepared a stable MXene Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheet dispersion system and confirmed its effective antimicrobial activity against MRSA. Furthermore, we observed differences in the photothermal and photodynamic effects of MXene Ti₃C₂T_x under different light sources. These findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the photoreactive properties of MXene Ti₃C₂T_x and guide clinical strategies for treating MRSA infections.

Keywords

antibacterial / drug resistance / nanomaterials / photodynamic / photothermal

References

[1] Y.Ding, Z.Li, C.Xu, et al., “Fluorogenic Probes/Inhibitors of β-lactamase and Their Applications in Drug-Resistant Bacteria,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no.1 (2020):24–40.

[2] X.Zhao, H.Tang, and X.Jiang, “Deploying Gold Nanomaterials in Combating Multi-Drug-Resistant Bacteria,” ACS Nano 16, no.7 (2022):10066–10087.

[3] M.Mizusawa and K. C. Carroll, “Novel Strategies for Rapid Identification and Susceptibility Testing of MRSA,” Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 18, no.8 (2020):759–778.

[4] H.Chen, Y.Yin, L.van Dorp, et al., “Drivers of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) Lineage Replacement in China,” Genome Medicine 13, no.1 (2021):171.

[5] A.Hassoun, P. K.Linden, and B.Friedman, “Incidence, Prevalence, and Management of Mrsa Bacteremia Across Patient Populations—A Review of Recent Developments in MRSA Management and Treatment,” Critical Care 21, no.1 (2017):211.

[6] J. S.Overcash, C.Kim, R.Keech, et al., “Ceftobiprole Compared With Vancomycin Plus Aztreonam in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Skin and Skin Structure Infections: Results of a Phase 3, Randomized, Double-Blind Trial (Target),” Clinical Infectious Diseases 73, no.7 (2021):e1507–e1517.

[7] T. M.Johnson, K. C.Molina, M. A.Miller, T. H.Kiser, M.Huang, and S. W.Mueller, “Combination Ceftaroline and Daptomycin Salvage Therapy for Complicated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Bacteraemia Compared With Standard of Care,” International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 57, no.4 (2021):106310.

[8] N.Omerović, M. Djisalov, K.Živojević, et al., “Antimicrobial Nanoparticles and Biodegradable Polymer Composites for Active Food Packaging Applications,” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 20, no.3 (2021):2428–2454.

[9] O.Matátková, J.Michailidu, A.Miškovská, I.Kolouchová, J.Masák, and A.Čejková, “Antimicrobial Properties and Applications of Metal Nanoparticles Biosynthesized by Green Methods,” Biotechnology Advances 58 (2022):107905.

[10] J. M. VMakabenta, A. Nabawy, C.-H.Li, S.Schmidt-Malan, R. Patel, and V. M.Rotello, “Nanomaterial-Based Therapeutics for Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Infections,” Nature Reviews Microbiology 19, no.1 (2021):23–36.

[11] C.Karthikeyan, T.Jayaramudu, D.Núñez, et al., “Hybrid Nanomaterial Composed of Chitosan, Curcumin, Zno and TiO₂ for Antibacterial Therapies,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 242 (2023):124814.

[12] W.Huang, L.Meng, Y.Chen, Z. Dong, and Q.Peng, “Bacterial Outer Membrane Vesicles as Potential Biological Nanomaterials for Antibacterial Therapy,” Acta Biomaterialia 140 (2022):102–115.

[13] A.Mishra, D.Pradhan, J.Halder, et al., “Metal Nanoparticles Against Multi-Drug-Resistance Bacteria,” Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 237 (2022):111938.

[14] Y. A.Fesseha, A. H.Manayia, P. C.Liu, et al., “Photoreactive Silver-Containing Supramolecular Polymers That Form Self-Assembled Nanogels for Efficient Antibacterial Treatment,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 654 (2024):967–978.

[15] L.Zhou, X.Zhu, J.Yang, et al., “Deciphering the Photoactive Species-Directed Antibacterial Mechanism of Bismuth Oxychloride With Modulated Nanoscale Thickness,” Journal of Environmental Management 333 (2023):117411.

[16] E.Pakdel, J.Sharp, S.Kashi, W. Bai, M. P.Gashti, and X.Wang, “Antibacterial Superhydrophobic Cotton Fabric With Photothermal, Self-Cleaning, and Ultraviolet Protection Functionalities,” ACS Applied Materials &Interfaces 15, no.28 (2023):34031–34043.

[17] M.Kolarikova, B.Hosikova, H.Dilenko, et al., “Photodynamic Therapy: Innovative Approaches for Antibacterial and Anticancer Treatments,” Medicinal Research Reviews 43, no.4 (2023):717–774.

[18] S.Mo, Y.Zhao, J.Wen, et al., “Efficient Photothermal and Photodynamic Synergistic Antibacterial Therapy of Cu₇S₄ Nanosheets Regulated by Facet Engineering,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 432 (2022):128662.

[19] Z.Yuan, C.Lin, Y.He, et al., “Near-Infrared Light-Triggered Nitric-Oxide-Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy and Low-Temperature Photothermal Therapy for Biofilm Elimination,” ACS Nano 14, no.3 (2020):3546–3562.

[20] S.Qin, K. A. S. Usman, D.Hegh, et al., “Development and Applications of MXene-Based Functional Fibers,” ACS Applied Materials &Interfaces 13, no.31 (2021):36655–36669.

[21] J.Li, Z.Li, X.Liu, et al., “Interfacial Engineering of Bi₂S₃/Ti₃C₂T_x Mxene Based on Work Function for Rapid Photo-Excited Bacteria-Killing,” Nature Communications 12, no.1 (2021):1224.

[22] D. Y.Tam, X.Zhuang, S. W.Wong, and P. K.Lo, “Photoresponsive Self-Assembled Dna Nanomaterials: Design, Working Principles, and Applications,” Small 15, no. 26 (2019):e1805481.

[23] Y.Gao, Y.Dong, S.Yang, et al., “Size-Dependent Photothermal Antibacterial Activity of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene Nanosheets Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 617 (2022):533–541.

[24] J.Lee, K.Lee, C.Wang, et al., “Combined Effects of Zeta-Potential and Temperature of Nanopores on Diffusioosmotic Ion Transport,” Analytical Chemistry 93, no.42 (2021):14169–14177.

[25] M.Overchuk, R. A.Weersink, B. C.Wilson, and G.Zheng, “Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapies: Synergy Opportunities for Nanomedicine,” ACS Nano 17, no.9 (2023):7979–8003.

[26] A.Maleki, J.He, S.Bochani, V. Nosrati, M. A.Shahbazi, and B.Guo, “Multifunctional Photoactive Hydrogels for Wound Healing Acceleration,” ACS Nano 15, no.12 (2021):18895–18930.

[27] A.Azizi, P.Shohrati, M.Goudarzi, S.Lawaf, and A.Rahimi, “Comparison of the Effect of Photodynamic Therapy With Curcumin and Methylene Blue on Streptococcus Mutans Bacterial Colonies,” Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy 27 (2019):203–209.

[28] S.Qi, G.Liu, J.Chen, et al., “Targeted Multifunctional Nanoplatform for Imaging-Guided Precision Diagnosis and Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy of Orthotopic Hepatocellular Carcinoma,” International Journal of Nanomedicine 17 (2022):3777–3792.

[29] A.Elbourne, J.Chapman, A.Gelmi, D.Cozzolino, R. J.Crawford, and V. K.Truong, “Bacterial-Nanostructure Interactions: The Role of Cell Elasticity and Adhesion Forces,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 546 (2019):192–210.

[30] R.Baskaran, J.Lee, and S.-G.Yang, “Clinical Development of Photodynamic Agents and Therapeutic Applications,” Biomaterials Research 22, no.1 (2018):25.

[31] Y.Hou, X.Yang, R.Liu, et al., “Pathological Mechanism of Photodynamic Therapy and Photothermal Therapy Based on Nanoparticles,” International Journal of Nanomedicine 15 (2020):6827–6838.

[32] Y.Chen, Y.Gao, Y.Chen, L. Liu, A.Mo, and Q.Peng, “Nanomaterials-Based Photothermal Therapy and Its Potentials in Antibacterial Treatment,” Journal of Controlled Release 328 (2020):251–262.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). MedComm - Biomaterials and Applications published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Sichuan International Medical Exchange & Promotion Association (SCIMEA).