Emerging Neural Recording and Neurostimulation Technologies Based on Brain–Computer Interface: A Promising Approach for Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Abstract

Neurological and psychiatric disorders, arising from disruptions in neural circuitry, pose a major and growing challenge to global healthcare systems. Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has emerged as a promising approach, enabling direct communication between the brain and external devices. By facilitating bidirectional interaction with the nervous system, BCIs open new avenues for both diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we examine recent advances in recording and stimulation technologies within the BCI framework and evaluate their therapeutic potential across major neuropsychiatric disorders. We focus particularly on post-stroke motor rehabilitation as a representative paradigm, providing detailed analysis of the mechanisms, clinical evidence, and future prospects of endovascular BCI, BCI-integrated epidural spinal cord stimulation, and BCI-driven deep brain stimulation. We further extend the discussion to movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease and epilepsy, as well as cognitive and psychiatric conditions including Alzheimer's disease and depression, highlighting how BCI-based approaches enable symptom detection and closed-loop neuromodulation. Additionally, we address ethical and societal considerations accompanying clinical translation of these advanced neurotechnologies. By integrating current evidence, this review highlights a paradigm shift toward more active, precise, and personalized neural rehabilitation enabled by BCI systems, while outlining key challenges and future directions for research and clinical application.

Keywords

brain–computer interface / closed-loop stimulation / deep brain stimulation / endovascular electrode arrays / epidural spinal cord stimulation / neuropsychiatric disorders

References

[1] H. Zhang, L. Jiao, S. Yang, et al., “Brain-Computer Interfaces: The Innovative Key to Unlocking Neurological Conditions,” International Journal of Surgery 110, no. 9 (2024): 5745–5762.

[2] A. S. Widge, K. K. Ellard, A. C. Paulk, et al., “Treating Refractory Mental Illness With Closed-Loop Brain Stimulation: Progress Towards a Patient-Specific Transdiagnostic Approach,” Experimental Neurology 287, no. pt. 4 (2017): 461–472.

[3] X. Chai, T. Cao, Q. He, et al., “Brain-Computer Interface Digital Prescription for Neurological Disorders,” CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics 30, no. 2 (2024): e14615.

[4] P. Cuijpers, M. Sijbrandij, S. L. Koole, G. Andersson, A. T. Beekman, and C. F. Reynolds, “The Efficacy of Psychotherapy and Pharmacotherapy in Treating Depressive and Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis of Direct Comparisons,” World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA) 12, no. 2 (2013): 137–148.

[5] F. D. Broccard, T. Mullen, Y. M. Chi, et al., “Closed-Loop Brain-Machine-Body Interfaces for Noninvasive Rehabilitation of Movement Disorders,” Annals of Biomedical Engineering 42, no. 8 (2014): 1573–1593.

[6] M. Huhn, M. Tardy, L. M. Spineli, et al., “Efficacy of Pharmacotherapy and Psychotherapy for Adult Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Overview of Meta-Analyses,” JAMA Psychiatry 71, no. 6 (2014): 706–715.

[7] I. H. Lin, H. T. Tsai, C. Y. Wang, C. Y. Hsu, T. H. Liou, and Y. N. Lin, “Effectiveness and Superiority of Rehabilitative Treatments in Enhancing Motor Recovery Within 6 Months Poststroke: A Systemic Review,” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 100, no. 2 (2019): 366–378.

[8] R. van der Vliet, R. W. Selles, E. R. Andrinopoulou, et al., “Predicting Upper Limb Motor Impairment Recovery After Stroke: A Mixture Model,” Annals of Neurology 87, no. 3 (2020): 383–393.

[9] A. Antonini, P. Odin, R. Pahwa, et al., “The Long-Term Impact of Levodopa/Carbidopa Intestinal Gel on 'Off'-Time in Patients With Advanced Parkinson's Disease: A Systematic Review,” Advances in Therapy 38, no. 6 (2021): 2854–2890.

[10] A. Cano, E. Fonseca, M. Ettcheto, et al., “Epilepsy in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Related Drugs and Molecular Pathways,” Pharmacy 14, no. 10 (2021): 1057.

[11] K. S. Kverno and E. Mangano, “Treatment-Resistant Depression: Approaches to Treatment,” Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services 59, no. 9 (2021): 7–11.

[12] R. Cohen Kadosh, “Rethinking Excitation/Inhibition Balance in the Human Brain,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 26, no. 8 (2025): 451–452.

[13] H. E. Marei, “Neural Circuit Mapping and Neurotherapy-Based Strategies,” Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 45, no. 1 (2025): 75.

[14] M. C. Dadarlat, R. A. Canfield, and A. L. Orsborn, “Neural Plasticity in Sensorimotor Brain-Machine Interfaces,” Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 25 (2023): 51–76.

[15] R. Mane, T. Chouhan, and C. Guan, “BCI for Stroke Rehabilitation: Motor and Beyond,” Journal of Neural Engineering 17, no. 4 (2020): 041001.

[16] D. Chen, Z. Zhao, S. Zhang, et al., “Evolving Therapeutic Landscape of Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Emerging Cutting-Edge Advancements in Surgical Robots, Regenerative Medicine, and Neurorehabilitation Techniques,” Translational Stroke Research 16, no. 3 (2024): 975–989.

[17] Y. N. Ma, K. Karako, P. Song, X. Hu, and Y. Xia, “Integrative Neurorehabilitation Using Brain-Computer Interface: From Motor Function to Mental Health After Stroke,” BioScience Trends 19, no. 3 (2025): 243–251.

[18] J. Li, W. Zhang, Y. Liao, et al., “Neural Decoding Reliability: Breakthroughs and Potential of Brain-Computer Interfaces Technologies in the Treatment of Neurological Diseases,” Physics of Life Reviews 55 (2025): 1–40.

[19] K. Kobayashi, K. N. Taylor, H. Shahabi, et al., “Effective Connectivity Relates Seizure Outcome to Electrode Placement in Responsive Neurostimulation,” Brain Communications 6, no. 1 (2024): fcae035.

[20] B. J. Edelman, S. Zhang, G. Schalk, et al., “Non-Invasive Brain-Computer Interfaces: State of the Art and Trends,” IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering 18 (2025): 26–49.

[21] H. Zheng, L. Niu, W. Qiu, et al., “The Emergence of Functional Ultrasound for Noninvasive Brain–Computer Interface,” Research 6 (2023): 0200.

[22] M. F. Mridha, S. C. Das, M. M. Kabir, A. A. Lima, M. R. Islam, and Y. Watanobe, “Brain-Computer Interface: Advancement and Challenges,” Sensors 21, no. 17 (2021): 5746.

[23] Y. Sun, X. Chen, B. Liu, et al., “Signal Acquisition of Brain–Computer Interfaces: A Medical-Engineering Crossover Perspective Review,” Fundamental Research 5, no. 1 (2024): 3–16.

[24] M. W. Slutzky, “Brain-Machine Interfaces: Powerful Tools for Clinical Treatment and Neuroscientific Investigations,” Neuroscientist 25, no. 2 (2019): 139–154.

[25] B. F. Saway, C. Palmer, C. Hughes, et al., “The Evolution of Neuromodulation for Chronic Stroke: From Neuroplasticity Mechanisms to Brain-Computer Interfaces,” Neurotherapeutics: The Journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics 21, no. 3 (2024): e00337.

[26] S. Yang, R. Li, H. Li, et al., “Exploring the Use of Brain-Computer Interfaces in Stroke Neurorehabilitation,” BioMed Research International 2021 (2021): 9967348.

[27] D. Chen, Z. Zhao, J. Shi, et al., “Harnessing the Sensing and Stimulation Function of Deep Brain-Machine Interfaces: A New Dawn for Overcoming Substance Use Disorders,” Translational Psychiatry 14, no. 1 (2024): 1–11.

[28] X. Cai, Z. Xu, J. Liu, R. Wang, and Y. Wu, “Recent Advances in Intracortical Neural Interfaces for Freely Moving Animals: Technologies and Applications,” Engineering 44 (2025): 73–86.

[29] J. F. M. Brannigan, A. Fry, N. L. Opie, B. C. V. Campbell, P. J. Mitchell, and T. J. Oxley, “Endovascular Brain-Computer Interfaces in Poststroke Paralysis,” Stroke; A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 55, no. 2 (2024): 474–483.

[30] M. J. Vansteensel, E. G. M. Pels, M. G. Bleichner, et al., “Fully Implanted Brain–Computer Interface in a Locked-in Patient With ALS,” New England Journal of Medicine 375, no. 21 (2016): 2060–2066.

[31] C. S. Mestais, G. Charvet, F. Sauter-Starace, M. Foerster, D. Ratel, and A. L. Benabid, “WIMAGINE: Wireless 64-Channel ECoG Recording Implant for Long Term Clinical Applications,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering 23, no. 1 (2015): 10–21.

[32] V. S. Polikov, P. A. Tresco, and W. M. Reichert, “Response of Brain Tissue to Chronically Implanted Neural Electrodes,” Journal of Neuroscience Methods 148, no. 1 (2005): 1–18.

[33] T. Saxena, L. Karumbaiah, E. A. Gaupp, et al., “The Impact of Chronic Blood-Brain Barrier Breach on Intracortical Electrode Function,” Biomaterials 34, no. 20 (2013): 4703–4713.

[34] D. Liu, Y. Shan, P. Wei, et al., “Reclaiming Hand Functions After Complete Spinal Cord Injury With Epidural Brain-Computer Interface,” Rehabilitation Medicine and Physical Therapy (2024), preprint, September 6, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.09.05.24313041.

[35] P. Mitchell, S. C. M. Lee, P. E. Yoo, et al., “Assessment of Safety of a Fully Implanted Endovascular Brain-Computer Interface for Severe Paralysis in 4 Patients: The Stentrode With Thought-Controlled Digital Switch (SWITCH) Study,” JAMA Neurology 80, no. 3 (2023): 270.

[36] M. Taylor-Rowan, G. Cuthbertson, R. Keir, et al., “The Prevalence of Frailty Among Acute Stroke Patients, and Evaluation of Method of Assessment,” Clinical Rehabilitation 33, no. 10 (2019): 1688–1696.

[37] R. A. Sastry, N. J. Pertsch, O. Tang, B. Shao, S. A. Toms, and R. J. Weil, “Frailty and Outcomes After Craniotomy for Brain Tumor,” Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 81 (2020): 95–100.

[38] W. J. Powers, A. A. Rabinstein, T. Ackerson, et al., “Guidelines for the Early Management of Patients With Acute Ischemic Stroke: 2019 Update to the 2018 Guidelines for the Early Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association,” Stroke; A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 50, no. 12 (2019): e344–e418.

[39] S. M. Greenberg, W. C. Ziai, C. Cordonnier, et al., “2022 Guideline for the Management of Patients With Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Guideline From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association,” Stroke; A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 53, no. 7 (2022): e282–e361.

[40] M. Goyal, B. K. Menon, W. H. van Zwam, et al., “Endovascular Thrombectomy After Large-Vessel Ischaemic Stroke: A Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient Data From Five Randomised Trials,” Lancet 387, no. 10029 (2016): 1723–1731.

[41] T. J. Oxley, N. L. Opie, S. E. John, et al., “Minimally Invasive Endovascular Stent-Electrode Array for High-Fidelity, Chronic Recordings of Cortical Neural Activity,” Nature Biotechnology 34, no. 3 (2016): 320–327.

[42] Q. He, Y. Yang, P. Ge, et al., “The Brain Nebula: Minimally Invasive Brain-Computer Interface by Endovascular Neural Recording and Stimulation,” Journal of Neurointerventional Surgery 16, no. 12 (2024): 1237–1243.

[43] J. Veldema and A. Gharabaghi, “Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation for Improving Gait, Balance, and Lower Limbs Motor Function in Stroke,” Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation 19, no. 1 (2022): 84.

[44] I. Rektorová, M. Pupíková, L. Fleury, L. Brabenec, and F. C. Hummel, “Non-invasive Brain Stimulation: Current and Future Applications in Neurology,” Nature Reviews Neurology 21, no. 12 (2025): 669–686.

[45] J. Dawson, A. H. Abdul-Rahim, and T. J. Kimberley, “Neurostimulation for Treatment of Post-Stroke Impairments,” Nature Reviews Neurology 20, no. 5 (2024): 259–268.

[46] FDA, "FDA Approves First-of-Its-Kind Stroke Rehabilitation System," FDA, August 31, 2021, https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-its-kind-stroke-rehabilitation-system.

[47] A. M. Lozano, N. Lipsman, H. Bergman, et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation: Current Challenges and Future Directions,” Nature Reviews Neurology 15, no. 3 (2019): 148–160.

[48] F. V. Gouveia, N. M. Warsi, H. Suresh, R. Matin, and G. M. Ibrahim, “Neurostimulation Treatments for Epilepsy: Deep Brain Stimulation, Responsive Neurostimulation and Vagus Nerve Stimulation,” Neurotherapeutics: The Journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics 21, no. 3 (2024): e00308.

[49] N. Grossman, D. Bono, N. Dedic, et al., “Noninvasive Deep Brain Stimulation via Temporally Interfering Electric Fields,” Cell 169, no. 6 (2017): 1029–1041.e16.

[50] R. Beisteiner, M. Hallett, and A. M. Lozano, “Ultrasound Neuromodulation as a New Brain Therapy,” Advanced Science 10, no. 14 (2023): e2205634.

[51] H. Lorach, A. Galvez, V. Spagnolo, et al., “Walking Naturally After Spinal Cord Injury Using a Brain-Spine Interface,” Nature 618, no. 7963 (2023): 126–133.

[52] S. He, F. Baig, A. Merla, et al., “Beta-Triggered Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation During Reaching Movement in Parkinson's Disease,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 146, no. 12 (2023): 5015–5030.

[53] N. D. Sisterson, V. Kokkinos, A. Urban, N. Li, and R. M. Richardson, “Responsive Neurostimulation of the Thalamus Improves Seizure Control in Idiopathic Generalised Epilepsy: Initial Case Series,” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 93, no. 5 (2022): 491–498.

[54] GBD 2019 Stroke Collaborators. Global, Regional, and National Burden of Stroke and Its Risk Factors, 1990–2019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Neurology 20, no. 10 (2021): 795–820.

[55] O. Beylerli, I. Gareev, H. Shi, and T. Ilyasova, “Effect of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes on the Inflammatory Response After Stroke,” Brain Hemorrhages 5, no. 5 (2024): 248–256.

[56] C. W. Tsao, A. W. Aday, Z. I. Almarzooq, et al., “Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2022 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association,” Circulation 145, no. 8 (2022): e153–e639.

[57] E. S. Lawrence, C. Coshall, R. Dundas, et al., “Estimates of the Prevalence of Acute Stroke Impairments and Disability in a Multiethnic Population,” Stroke; A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 32, no. 6 (2001): 1279–1284.

[58] D. T. Wade and R. L. Hewer, “Motor Loss and Swallowing Difficulty After Stroke: Frequency, Recovery, and Prognosis,” Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 76, no. 1 (1987): 50–54.

[59] U. Hammerbeck, S. F. Tyson, P. Samraj, K. Hollands, J. W. Krakauer, and J. Rothwell, “The Strength of the Corticospinal Tract Not the Reticulospinal Tract Determines Upper-Limb Impairment Level and Capacity for Skill-Acquisition in the Sub-Acute Post-Stroke Period,” Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 35, no. 9 (2021): 812–822.

[60] C. J. Winstein, J. Stein, R. Arena, et al., “Guidelines for Adult Stroke Rehabilitation and Recovery: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association,” Stroke; A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 47, no. 6 (2016): e98–e169.

[61] E. R. Coleman, R. Moudgal, K. Lang, et al., “Early Rehabilitation After Stroke: A Narrative Review,” Current Atherosclerosis Reports 19, no. 12 (2017): 59.

[62] M. Gittler and A. M. Davis, “Guidelines for Adult Stroke Rehabilitation and Recovery,” JAMA 319, no. 8 (2018): 820–821.

[63] C. M. Stinear, C. E. Lang, S. Zeiler, and W. D. Byblow, “Advances and Challenges in Stroke Rehabilitation,” Lancet Neurology 19, no. 4 (2020): 348–360.

[64] U. Chaudhary, N. Birbaumer, and A. Ramos-Murguialday, “Brain–Computer Interfaces for Communication and Rehabilitation,” Nature Reviews Neurology 12, no. 9 (2016): 513–525.

[65] R. Mane, Z. Wu, and D. Wang, “Poststroke Motor, Cognitive and Speech Rehabilitation With Brain-Computer Interface: A Perspective Review,” Stroke and Vascular Neurology 7, no. 6 (2022): 541–549.

[66] S. N. Flesher, J. E. Downey, J. M. Weiss, et al., “A Brain-Computer Interface That Evokes Tactile Sensations Improves Robotic Arm Control,” Science 372, no. 6544 (2021): 831–836.

[67] C. Marquez-Chin and M. R. Popovic, “Functional Electrical Stimulation Therapy for Restoration of Motor Function After Spinal Cord Injury and Stroke: A Review,” Biomedical Engineering Online 19 (2020): 34.

[68] A. Biasiucci, R. Leeb, I. Iturrate, et al., “Brain-Actuated Functional Electrical Stimulation Elicits Lasting Arm Motor Recovery After Stroke,” Nature Communications 9, no. 1 (2018): 2421.

[69] K. B. Baker, E. B. Plow, S. Nagel, et al., “Cerebellar Deep Brain Stimulation for Chronic Post-Stroke Motor Rehabilitation: A Phase I Trial,” Nature Medicine 29, no. 9 (2023): 2366–2374.

[70] M. P. Powell, N. Verma, E. Sorensen, et al., “Epidural Stimulation of the Cervical Spinal Cord for Post-Stroke Upper-Limb Paresis,” Nature Medicine 29, no. 3 (2023): 689–699.

[71] R. D. Penn, S. K. Hilal, W. J. Michelsen, E. S. Goldensohn, and J. Driller, “Intravascular Intracranial EEG Recording. Technical Note,” Journal of Neurosurgery 38, no. 2 (1973): 239–243.

[72] J. Z. Fan, V. Lopez-Rivera, and S. A. Sheth, “Over the Horizon: The Present and Future of Endovascular Neural Recording and Stimulation,” Frontiers in Neuroscience 14 (2020): 432.

[73] L. Leishangthem, P. SirDeshpande, D. Dua, and S. R. Satti, “Dural Venous Sinus Stenting for Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension: An Updated Review,” Journal of Neuroradiology [Journal De Neuroradiologie] 46, no. 2 (2019): 148–154.

[74] T. J. Oxley, P. E. Yoo, G. S. Rind, et al., “Motor Neuroprosthesis Implanted With Neurointerventional Surgery Improves Capacity for Activities of Daily Living Tasks in Severe Paralysis: First In-Human Experience,” Journal of NeuroInterventional Surgery 13, no. 2 (2021): 102–108.

[75] N. L. Opie, N. R. van der Nagel, S. E. John, et al., “Micro-CT and Histological Evaluation of an Neural Interface Implanted Within a Blood Vessel,” IEEE Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering 64, no. 4 (2017): 928–934.

[76] N. L. Opie, S. E. John, G. S. Rind, et al., “Chronic Impedance Spectroscopy of an Endovascular Stent-Electrode Array,” Journal of Neural Engineering 13, no. 4 (2016): 046020.

[77] S. E. John, N. L. Opie, Y. T. Wong, et al., “Signal Quality of Simultaneously Recorded Endovascular, Subdural and Epidural Signals Are Comparable,” Scientific Reports 8, no. 1 (2018): 8427.

[78] B. Thielen, H. Xu, T. Fujii, et al., “Making a Case for Endovascular Approaches for Neural Recording and Stimulation,” Journal of Neural Engineering 20, no. 1 (2023): 011001.

[79] H. C. H. Lui, Y. T. Ng, S. C. H. Yu, J. T. F. Zhuang, and G. K. C. Wong, “Mid-Term Outcomes in Stent-Assisted Coil Embolization for Ruptured Cerebral Aneurysms in the Acute Period: A Single Institution Retrospective Review,” Brain Hemorrhages 5, no. 6 (2024): 267–273.

[80] S. A. Raza, N. L. Opie, A. Morokoff, R. P. Sharma, P. J. Mitchell, and T. J. Oxley, “Endovascular Neuromodulation: Safety Profile and Future Directions,” Frontiers in Neurology 11 (2020): 351.

[81] B. Abu-El-Haija, P. D. Bhave, D. N. Campbell, et al., “Venous Stenosis After Transvenous Lead Placement: A Study of Outcomes and Risk Factors in 212 Consecutive Patients,” Journal of the American Heart Association 4, no. 8 (2015): e001878.

[82] C. Sticherling, S. P. Chough, R. L. Baker, et al., “Prevalence of Central Venous Occlusion in Patients With Chronic Defibrillator Leads,” American Heart Journal 141, no. 5 (2001): 813–816.

[83] D. A. Moses, S. L. Metzger, J. R. Liu, et al., “Neuroprosthesis for Decoding Speech in a Paralyzed Person With Anarthria,” New England Journal of Medicine 385, no. 3 (2021): 217–227.

[84] B. Jarosiewicz, A. A. Sarma, D. Bacher, et al., “Virtual Typing by People With Tetraplegia Using a Self-Calibrating Intracortical Brain-Computer Interface,” Science Translational Medicine 7, no. 313 (2015): 313ra179.

[85] D. Navarro-Orozco and J. C. Sánchez-Manso, “Neuroanatomy, Middle Cerebral artery,” in StatPearls [Internet] (StatPearls Publishing, 2023), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526002/.

[86] Y. S. Ng, J. Stein, M. Ning, and R. M. Black-Schaffer, “Comparison of Clinical Characteristics and Functional Outcomes of Ischemic Stroke in Different Vascular Territories,” Stroke; A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 38, no. 8 (2007): 2309–2314.

[87] K. N. Sheth, “Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage,” New England Journal of Medicine 387, no. 17 (2022): 1589–1596.

[88] T. Yanagisawa, M. Hirata, Y. Saitoh, et al., “Neural Decoding Using Gyral and Intrasulcal Electrocorticograms,” Neuroimage 45, no. 4 (2009): 1099–1106.

[89] A. Nambu, “Somatotopic Organization of the Primate Basal Ganglia,” Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 5 (2011): 26.

[90] P. Romanelli, V. Esposito, D. W. Schaal, and G. Heit, “Somatotopy in the Basal Ganglia: Experimental and Clinical Evidence for Segregated Sensorimotor Channels,” Brain Research Reviews 48, no. 1 (2005): 112–128.

[91] B. A. Teplitzky, A. T. Connolly, J. A. Bajwa, and M. D. Johnson, “Computational Modeling of an Endovascular Approach to Deep Brain Stimulation,” Journal of Neural Engineering 11, no. 2 (2014): 026011.

[92] J. L. Collinger, B. Wodlinger, J. E. Downey, et al., “High-Performance Neuroprosthetic Control by an Individual With Tetraplegia,” Lancet 381, no. 9866 (2013): 557–564.

[93] Y. Zhang, Y. Gao, J. Zhou, Z. Zhang, M. Feng, and Y. Liu, “Advances in Brain-Computer Interface Controlled Functional Electrical Stimulation for Upper Limb Recovery After Stroke,” Brain Research Bulletin 226 (2025): 111354.

[94] B. Wodlinger, J. E. Downey, E. C. Tyler-Kabara, A. B. Schwartz, M. L. Boninger, and J. L. Collinger, “Ten-Dimensional Anthropomorphic Arm Control in a Human Brain-Machine Interface: Difficulties, Solutions, and Limitations,” Journal of Neural Engineering 12, no. 1 (2015): 016011.

[95] A. B. Ajiboye, F. R. Willett, D. R. Young, et al., “Restoration of Reaching and Grasping Movements Through Brain-Controlled Muscle Stimulation in a Person With Tetraplegia: A Proof-of-Concept Demonstration,” Lancet 389, no. 10081 (2017): 1821–1830.

[96] A. Zhang, E. T. Mandeville, L. Xu, C. M. Stary, E. H. Lo, and C. M. Lieber, “Ultraflexible Endovascular Probes for Brain Recording Through Micrometer-Scale Vasculature,” Science 381, no. 6655 (2023): 306–312.

[97] M. M. Shanechi, R. C. Hu, M. Powers, G. W. Wornell, E. N. Brown, and Z. M. Williams, “Neural Population Partitioning and a Concurrent Brain-Machine Interface for Sequential Motor Function,” Nature Neuroscience 15, no. 12 (2012): 1715–1722.

[98] M. P. Branco, Z. V. Freudenburg, E. J. Aarnoutse, M. G. Bleichner, M. J. Vansteensel, and N. F. Ramsey, “Decoding Hand Gestures From Primary Somatosensory Cortex Using High-Density ECoG,” Neuroimage 147 (2017): 130–142.

[99] J. R. Allen, S. R. Karri, C. Yang, and M. E. Stoykov, “Spinal Cord Stimulation for Poststroke Hemiparesis: A Scoping Review,” American Journal of Occupational Therapy 78, no. 2 (2024): 7802180220.

[100] A. Rowald, S. Komi, R. Demesmaeker, et al., “Activity-Dependent Spinal Cord Neuromodulation Rapidly Restores Trunk and Leg Motor Functions After Complete Paralysis,” Nature Medicine 28, no. 2 (2022): 260–271.

[101] R. Melzack and P. D. Wall, “Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory,” Science 150, no. 3699 (1965): 971–979.

[102] R. Ali and J. M. Schwalb, “History and Future of Spinal Cord Stimulation,” Neurosurgery 94, no. 1 (2024): 20–28.

[103] M. R. Dimitrijevic, Y. Gerasimenko, and M. M. Pinter, “Evidence for a Spinal Central Pattern Generator in Humans,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 860 (1998): 360–376.

[104] S. Grillner and P. Zangger, “On the Central Generation of Locomotion in the Low Spinal Cat,” Experimental Brain Research 34, no. 2 (1979): 241–261.

[105] Y. Gerasimenko, R. R. Roy, and V. R. Edgerton, “Epidural Stimulation: Comparison of the Spinal Circuits That Generate and Control Locomotion in Rats, Cats and Humans,” Experimental Neurology 209, no. 2 (2008): 417–425.

[106] R. D. De Leon, J. A. Hodgson, R. R. Roy, and V. R. Edgerton, “Full Weight-Bearing Hindlimb Standing Following Stand Training in the Adult Spinal Cat,” Journal of Neurophysiology 80, no. 1 (1998): 83–91.

[107] G. Courtine, Y. Gerasimenko, R. van den Brand, et al., “Transformation of Nonfunctional Spinal Circuits Into Functional States After the Loss of Brain Input,” Nature Neuroscience 12, no. 10 (2009): 1333–1342.

[108] R. Herman, J. He, S. D'Luzansky, W. Willis, and S. Dilli, “Spinal Cord Stimulation Facilitates Functional Walking in a Chronic, Incomplete Spinal Cord Injured,” Spinal Cord 40, no. 2 (2002): 65–68.

[109] B. Jilge, K. Minassian, F. Rattay, et al., “Initiating Extension of the Lower Limbs in Subjects With Complete Spinal Cord Injury by Epidural Lumbar Cord Stimulation,” Experimental Brain Research 154, no. 3 (2004): 308–326.

[110] K. Minassian, B. Jilge, F. Rattay, et al., “Stepping-Like Movements in Humans With Complete Spinal Cord Injury Induced by Epidural Stimulation of the Lumbar Cord: Electromyographic Study of Compound Muscle Action Potentials,” Spinal Cord 42, no. 7 (2004): 401–416.

[111] B. Jilge, K. Minassian, F. Rattay, and M. R. Dimitrijevic, “Frequency-Dependent Selection of Alternative Spinal Pathways With Common Periodic Sensory Input,” Biological Cybernetics 91, no. 6 (2004): 359–376.

[112] K. Minassian, I. Persy, F. Rattay, M. M. Pinter, H. Kern, and M. R. Dimitrijevic, “Human Lumbar Cord Circuitries Can be Activated by Extrinsic Tonic Input to Generate Locomotor-Like Activity,” Human Movement Science 26, no. 2 (2007): 275–295.

[113] V. R. Edgerton, G. Courtine, Y. P. Gerasimenko, et al., “Training Locomotor Networks,” Brain Research Reviews 57, no. 1 (2008): 241–254.

[114] E. M. Moraud, M. Capogrosso, E. Formento, et al., “Mechanisms Underlying the Neuromodulation of Spinal Circuits for Correcting Gait and Balance Deficits After Spinal Cord Injury,” Neuron 89, no. 4 (2016): 814–828.

[115] S. Harkema, Y. Gerasimenko, J. Hodes, et al., “Effect of Epidural Stimulation of the Lumbosacral Spinal Cord on Voluntary Movement, Standing, and Assisted Stepping After Motor Complete Paraplegia: A Case Study,” Lancet 377, no. 9781 (2011): 1938–1947.

[116] C. A. Angeli, V. R. Edgerton, Y. P. Gerasimenko, and S. J. Harkema, “Altering Spinal Cord Excitability Enables Voluntary Movements After Chronic Complete Paralysis in Humans,” Brain 137, no. pt. 5 (2014): 1394–1409.

[117] E. Rejc, C. Angeli, and S. Harkema, “Effects of Lumbosacral Spinal Cord Epidural Stimulation for Standing After Chronic Complete Paralysis in Humans,” PLoS ONE 10, no. 7 (2015): e0133998.

[118] M. L. Gill, P. J. Grahn, J. S. Calvert, et al., “Neuromodulation of Lumbosacral Spinal Networks Enables Independent Stepping After Complete Paraplegia,” Nature Medicine 24, no. 11 (2018): 1677–1682.

[119] C. A. Angeli, M. Boakye, R. A. Morton, et al., “Recovery of Over-Ground Walking After Chronic Motor Complete Spinal Cord Injury,” New England Journal of Medicine 379, no. 13 (2018): 1244–1250.

[120] E. Rejc, C. A. Angeli, D. Atkinson, and S. J. Harkema, “Motor Recovery After Activity-Based Training With Spinal Cord Epidural Stimulation in a Chronic Motor Complete Paraplegic,” Scientific Reports 7, no. 1 (2017): 13476.

[121] T. Guiho, S. N. Baker, and A. Jackson, “Epidural and Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation Facilitates Descending Inputs to Upper-Limb Motoneurons in Monkeys,” Journal of Neural Engineering 18, no. 4 (2021): 046011.

[122] M. Capogrosso, J. M. Balaguer, G. Prat-Ortega, et al., “Supraspinal Control of Motoneurons After Paralysis Enabled by Spinal Cord Stimulation,” Research Square (2025): rs.3.rs–3650257, https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3650257/v1.

[123] Y. Nishimura, S. I. Perlmutter, R. W. Eaton, and E. E. Fetz, “Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity in Primate Corticospinal Connections Induced During Free Behavior,” Neuron 80, no. 5 (2013): 1301–1309.

[124] E. Formento, K. Minassian, F. Wagner, et al., “Electrical Spinal Cord Stimulation Must Preserve Proprioception to Enable Locomotion in Humans With Spinal Cord Injury,” Nature Neuroscience 21, no. 12 (2018): 1728–1741.

[125] N. Wenger, E. M. Moraud, S. Raspopovic, et al., “Closed-Loop Neuromodulation of Spinal Sensorimotor Circuits Controls Refined Locomotion After Complete Spinal Cord Injury,” Science Translational Medicine 6, no. 255 (2014): 255ra133.

[126] N. Wenger, E. M. Moraud, J. Gandar, et al., “Spatiotemporal Neuromodulation Therapies Engaging Muscle Synergies Improve Motor Control After Spinal Cord Injury,” Nature Medicine 22, no. 2 (2016): 138–145.

[127] F. B. Wagner, J. B. Mignardot, C. G. Le Goff-Mignardot, et al., “Targeted Neurotechnology Restores Walking in Humans With Spinal Cord Injury,” Nature 563, no. 7729 (2018): 65–71.

[128] M. Capogrosso, T. Milekovic, D. Borton, et al., “A Brain-spine Interface Alleviating Gait Deficits After Spinal Cord Injury in Primates,” Nature 539, no. 7628 (2016): 284–288.

[129] M. Bonizzato, G. Pidpruzhnykova, J. DiGiovanna, et al., “Brain-Controlled Modulation of Spinal Circuits Improves Recovery From Spinal Cord Injury,” Nature Communications 9, no. 1 (2018): 3015.

[130] S. Yakovenko, V. Mushahwar, V. VanderHorst, G. Holstege, and A. Prochazka, “Spatiotemporal Activation of Lumbosacral Motoneurons in the Locomotor Step Cycle,” Journal of Neurophysiology 87, no. 3 (2002): 1542–1553.

[131] G. Cappellini, Y. P. Ivanenko, N. Dominici, R. E. Poppele, and F. Lacquaniti, “Migration of Motor Pool Activity in the Spinal Cord Reflects Body Mechanics in Human Locomotion,” Journal of Neurophysiology 104, no. 6 (2010): 3064–3073.

[132] Y. P. Ivanenko, R. Grasso, M. Zago, et al., “Temporal Components of the Motor Patterns Expressed by the Human Spinal Cord Reflect Foot Kinematics,” Journal of Neurophysiology 90, no. 5 (2003): 3555–3565.

[133] M. Capogrosso, F. B. Wagner, J. Gandar, et al., “Configuration of Electrical Spinal Cord Stimulation Through Real-Time Processing of Gait Kinematics,” Nature Protocols 13, no. 9 (2018): 2031–2061.

[134] H. Lorach, G. Charvet, J. Bloch, and G. Courtine, “Brain–Spine Interfaces to Reverse Paralysis,” National Science Review 9, no. 10 (2022): nwac009.

[135] L. D. Hachem, G. Balbinot, and M. G. Fehlings, “A Digital Bridge to Reverse Paralysis,” Cell Research 33, no. 12 (2023): 892–893.

[136] S. Moorjani, S. Walvekar, E. E. Fetz, and S. I. Perlmutter, “Movement-Dependent Electrical Stimulation for Volitional Strengthening of Cortical Connections in Behaving Monkeys,” Proceedings National Academy of Science USA 119, no. 27 (2022): e2116321119.

[137] D. J. Guggenmos, M. Azin, S. Barbay, et al., “Restoration of Function After Brain Damage Using a Neural Prosthesis,” Proceedings National Academy of Science USA 110, no. 52 (2013): 21177–21182.

[138] E. Pirondini, E. Carranza, J. M. Balaguer, et al., “Poststroke Arm and Hand Paresis: Should We Target the Cervical Spinal Cord?,” Trends in Neuroscience (Tins) 45, no. 8 (2022): 568–578.

[139] K. S. Hayward and J. Bernhardt, “Aspiring to Restore Arm and Hand Function After Stroke,” Lancet Neurology 22, no. 6 (2023): 464–465.

[140] D. M. Griffin and P. L. Strick, “The Motor Cortex Uses Active Suppression to Sculpt Movement,” Science Advances 6, no. 34 (2020): eabb8395.

[141] M. Kinoshita, R. Matsui, S. Kato, et al., “Genetic Dissection of the Circuit for Hand Dexterity in Primates,” Nature 487, no. 7406 (2012): 235–238.

[142] D. C. Lu, V. R. Edgerton, M. Modaber, et al., “Engaging Cervical Spinal Cord Networks to Reenable Volitional Control of Hand Function in Tetraplegic Patients,” Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 30, no. 10 (2016): 951–962.

[143] B. Barra, S. Conti, M. G. Perich, et al., “Epidural Electrical Stimulation of the Cervical Dorsal Roots Restores Voluntary Upper Limb Control in Paralyzed Monkeys,” Nature Neuroscience 25, no. 7 (2022): 924–934.

[144] E. H. Choi, S. Gattas, N. J. Brown, et al., “Epidural Electrical Stimulation for Spinal Cord Injury,” Neural Regeneration Research 16, no. 12 (2021): 2367–2375.

[145] C. Rosso, R. Valabregue, Y. Attal, et al., “Contribution of Corticospinal Tract and Functional Connectivity in Hand Motor Impairment After Stroke,” PLoS ONE 8, no. 9 (2013): e73164.

[146] T. Tian, S. Zhang, and M. Yang, “Recent Progress and Challenges in the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury,” Protein Cell 14, no. 9 (2023): 635–652.

[147] Y. Moon, T. Zuleger, M. Lamberti, et al., “Characterization of Motor-Evoked Responses Obtained With Transcutaneous Electrical Spinal Stimulation From the Lower-Limb Muscles After Stroke,” Brain Sciences 11, no. 3 (2021): 289.

[148] X. Li, T. Xue, Z. Li, and J. Zhang, “Invasive Electrical Nerve Stimulation for Post-Stroke Motor Rehabilitation,” Chinese Medical Journal 137, no. 20 (2024): 2495–2497.

[149] R. M. de Freitas, A. Sasaki, D. G. Sayenko, et al., “Selectivity and Excitability of Upper-Limb Muscle Activation During Cervical Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation in Humans,” Journal of Applied Physiology 131, no. 2 (2021): 746–759.

[150] Y. Giat, J. Mizrahi, and M. Levy, “A Musculotendon Model of the Fatigue Profiles of Paralyzed Quadriceps Muscle Under FES,” IEEE Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering 40, no. 7 (1993): 664–674.

[151] M. M. Shanechi, R. C. Hu, and Z. M. Williams, “A Cortical-Spinal Prosthesis for Targeted Limb Movement in Paralysed Primate Avatars,” Nature Communications 5 (2014): 3237.

[152] M. Capogrosso, N. Wenger, S. Raspopovic, et al., “A Computational Model for Epidural Electrical Stimulation of Spinal Sensorimotor Circuits,” Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 33, no. 49 (2013): 19326–19340.

[153] S. Samejima, A. Khorasani, V. Ranganathan, et al., “Brain-Computer-Spinal Interface Restores Upper Limb Function After Spinal Cord Injury,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering: A Publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 29 (2021): 1233–1242.

[154] I. Seáñez and M. Capogrosso, “Motor Improvements Enabled by Spinal Cord Stimulation Combined With Physical Training After Spinal Cord Injury: Review of Experimental Evidence in Animals and Humans,” Bioelectronic Medicine 7, no. 1 (2021): 16.

[155] A. Jackson and J. B. Zimmermann, “Neural Interfaces for the Brain and Spinal Cord—Restoring Motor Function,” Nature Reviews Neurology 8, no. 12 (2012): 690–699.

[156] B. J. Edelman, J. Meng, D. Suma, et al., “Noninvasive Neuroimaging Enhances Continuous Neural Tracking for Robotic Device Control,” Science Robotics 4, no. 31 (2019): eaaw6844.

[157] N. Greiner, B. Barra, G. Schiavone, et al., “Recruitment of Upper-Limb Motoneurons With Epidural Electrical Stimulation of the Cervical Spinal Cord,” Nature Communications 12, no. 1 (2021): 435.

[158] K. Kato, Y. Nishihara, and Y. Nishimura, “Stimulus Outputs Induced by Subdural Electrodes on the Cervical Spinal Cord in Monkeys,” Journal of Neural Engineering 17, no. 1 (2020): 016044.

[159] J. S. Calvert, P. J. Grahn, K. D. Zhao, and K. H. Lee, “Emergence of Epidural Electrical Stimulation to Facilitate Sensorimotor Network Functionality After Spinal Cord Injury,” Neuromodulation: Journal of the International Neuromodulation Society 22, no. 3 (2019): 244–252.

[160] C. Moritz, E. C. Field-Fote, C. Tefertiller, et al., “Non-Invasive Spinal Cord Electrical Stimulation for Arm and Hand Function in Chronic Tetraplegia: A Safety and Efficacy Trial,” Nature Medicine 30, no. 5 (2024): 1276–1283.

[161] Y. Sui, H. Yu, C. Zhang, Y. Chen, C. Jiang, and L. Li, “Deep Brain-Machine Interfaces: Sensing and Modulating the Human Deep Brain,” National Science Review 9, no. 10 (2022): nwac212.

[162] G. J. B. Elias, A. A. Namasivayam, and A. M. Lozano, “Deep Brain Stimulation for Stroke: Current Uses and Future Directions,” Brain Stimulation 11, no. 1 (2018): 3–28.

[163] M. DeLong and T. Wichmann, “Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement and Other Neurologic Disorders,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1265 (2012): 1–8.

[164] L. L. Oganesian and M. M. Shanechi, “Brain–Computer Interfaces for Neuropsychiatric Disorders,” Nature Reviews Bioengineering 2, no. 8 (2024): 653–670.

[165] D. J. Lee, C. S. Lozano, R. F. Dallapiazza, and A. M. Lozano, “Current and Future Directions of Deep Brain Stimulation for Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders,” Journal of Neurosurgery 131, no. 2 (2019): 333–342.

[166] G. Kumar and C. R. Soni, “Central Post-Stroke Pain: Current Evidence,” Journal of the Neurological Sciences 284, no. 1-2 (2009): 10–17.

[167] M. R. Paro, M. Dyrda, S. Ramanan, et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders After Stroke: A Systematic Review of the Literature,” Journal of Neurosurgery 138, no. 6 (2022): 1688–1701.

[168] J. C. Ho, E. M. Grigsby, A. Damiani, et al., “Potentiation of Cortico-Spinal Output via Targeted Electrical Stimulation of the Motor Thalamus,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 8461.

[169] S. D. Krämer, M. K. Schuhmann, J. Volkmann, and F. Fluri, “Deep Brain Stimulation in the Subthalamic Nucleus Can Improve Skilled Forelimb Movements and Retune Dynamics of Striatal Networks in a Rat Stroke Model,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 24 (2022): 15862.

[170] J. Xu, B. Liu, S. Liu, et al., “Efficacy and Safety of Deep Brain Stimulation in Mesencephalic Locomotor Region for Motor Function in Patients With Post-Stroke Hemiplegia: A Study Protocol for a Multi-Center Double-Blind Crossover Randomized Controlled Trial,” Frontiers in Neurology 15 (2024): 1355104.

[171] N. Cho, J. W. Squair, V. Aureli, et al., “Hypothalamic Deep Brain Stimulation Augments Walking After Spinal Cord Injury,” Nature Medicine 30, no. 12 (2024): 3676–3686.

[172] R. N. Lemon, “Descending Pathways in Motor Control,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 31 (2008): 195–218.

[173] S. P. Hsu, C. F. Lu, B. F. Lin, et al., “Effects of Bihemispheric Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Motor Recovery in Subacute Stroke Patients: A Double-Blind, Randomized Sham-Controlled Trial,” Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation 20, no. 1 (2023): 27.

[174] M. Coscia, M. J. Wessel, U. Chaudary, et al., “Neurotechnology-Aided Interventions for Upper Limb Motor Rehabilitation in Severe Chronic Stroke,” Brain 142, no. 8 (2019): 2182–2197.

[175] J. P. Lefaucheur, A. Aleman, C. Baeken, et al., “Evidence-Based Guidelines on the Therapeutic Use of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS): An Update (2014-2018),” Clinical Neurophysiology: Official Journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology 131, no. 2 (2020): 474–528.

[176] M. Bonizzato and M. Martinez, “An Intracortical Neuroprosthesis Immediately Alleviates Walking Deficits and Improves Recovery of Leg Control After Spinal Cord Injury,” Science Translational Medicine 13, no. 586 (2021): eabb4422.

[177] A. Machado and K. B. Baker, “Upside Down Crossed Cerebellar Diaschisis: Proposing Chronic Stimulation of the Dentatothalamocortical Pathway for Post-Stroke Motor Recovery,” Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience 6 (2012): 20.

[178] A. G. Machado, J. Cooperrider, H. T. Furmaga, et al., “Chronic 30-hz Deep Cerebellar Stimulation Coupled With Training Enhances Post-Ischemia Motor Recovery and Peri-Infarct Synaptophysin Expression in Rodents,” Neurosurgery 73, no. 2 (2013): 344–353, discussion 353.

[179] H. J. Park, H. Furmaga, J. Cooperrider, J. T. Gale, K. B. Baker, and A. G. Machado, “Modulation of Cortical Motor Evoked Potential After Stroke During Electrical Stimulation of the Lateral Cerebellar Nucleus,” Brain Stimulation 8, no. 6 (2015): 1043–1048.

[180] J. Cooperrider, H. Furmaga, E. Plow, et al., “Chronic Deep Cerebellar Stimulation Promotes Long-Term Potentiation, Microstructural Plasticity, and Reorganization of Perilesional Cortical Representation in a Rodent Model,” Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 34, no. 27 (2014): 9040–9050.

[181] A. M. Shah, S. Ishizaka, M. Y. Cheng, et al., “Optogenetic Neuronal Stimulation of the Lateral Cerebellar Nucleus Promotes Persistent Functional Recovery After Stroke,” Scientific Reports 7 (2017): 46612.

[182] W. J. Neumann, R. Gilron, S. Little, and G. Tinkhauser, “Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation: From Experimental Evidence Toward Practical Implementation,” Movement Disorders 38, no. 6 (2023): 937–948.

[183] S. Zanos, “Closed-Loop Neuromodulation in Physiological and Translational Research,” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 9, no. 11 (2019): a034314.

[184] S. L. Schmidt, A. H. Chowdhury, K. T. Mitchell, et al., “At Home Adaptive Dual Target Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson's Disease With Proportional Control,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 147, no. 3 (2024): 911–922.

[185] N. C. Swann, C. de Hemptinne, M. C. Thompson, et al., “Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's disease Using Motor Cortex Sensing,” Journal of Neural Engineering 15, no. 4 (2018): 046006.

[186] J. A. Herron, M. C. Thompson, T. Brown, H. J. Chizeck, J. G. Ojemann, and A. L. Ko, “Cortical Brain-Computer Interface for Closed-Loop Deep Brain Stimulation,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering: A Publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 25, no. 11 (2017): 2180–2187.

[187] B. Kim and C. Winstein, “Can Neurological Biomarkers of Brain Impairment be Used to Predict Poststroke Motor Recovery? A Systematic Review,” Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 31, no. 1 (2017): 3–24.

[188] R. Mane, E. Chew, K. S. Phua, et al., “Prognostic and Monitory EEG-Biomarkers for BCI Upper-Limb Stroke Rehabilitation,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering: A Publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 27, no. 8 (2019): 1654–1664.

[189] L. A. Boyd, K. S. Hayward, N. S. Ward, et al., “Biomarkers of Stroke Recovery: Consensus-Based Core Recommendations From the Stroke Recovery and Rehabilitation Roundtable,” International Journal of Stroke: Official Journal of the International Stroke Society 12, no. 5 (2017): 480–493.

[190] W. J. Neumann, F. Staub-Bartelt, A. Horn, et al., “Long Term Correlation of Subthalamic Beta Band Activity With Motor Impairment in Patients With Parkinson's Disease,” Clinical Neurophysiology: Official Journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology 128, no. 11 (2017): 2286–2291.

[191] T. Morishita, M. S. Okun, A. Burdick, C. E. Jacobson, and K. D. Foote, “Cerebral Venous Infarction: A Potentially Avoidable Complication of Deep Brain Stimulation Surgery,” Neuromodulation 16, no. 5 (2013): 407–413, discussion 413.

[192] T. Morishita, K. D. Foote, A. P. Burdick, et al., “Identification and Management of Deep Brain Stimulation Intra- and Postoperative Urgencies and Emergencies,” Parkinsonism & Related Disorders 16, no. 3 (2010): 153–162.

[193] A. Gorgulho, A. A. F. De Salles, L. Frighetto, and E. Behnke, “Incidence of Hemorrhage Associated With Electrophysiological Studies Performed Using Macroelectrodes and Microelectrodes in Functional Neurosurgery,” Journal of Neurosurgery 102, no. 5 (2005): 888–896.

[194] D. K. Binder, G. M. Rau, and P. A. Starr, “Risk Factors for Hemorrhage During Microelectrode-Guided Deep Brain Stimulator Implantation for Movement Disorders,” Neurosurgery 56, no. 4 (2005): 722–732, discussion 722–732.

[195] C. Hamani, E. Richter, J. M. Schwalb, and A. M. Lozano, “Bilateral Subthalamic Nucleus Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease: A Systematic Review of the Clinical Literature,” Neurosurgery 56, no. 6 (2005): 1313–1321, discussion 1321–1324.

[196] A. Videnovic and L. V. Metman, “Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease: Prevalence of Adverse Events and Need for Standardized Reporting,” Movement Disorders 23, no. 3 (2008): 343–349.

[197] B. T. Himes, G. W. Mallory, A. S. Abcejo, et al., “Contemporary Analysis of the Intraoperative and Perioperative Complications of Neurosurgical Procedures Performed in the Sitting Position,” Journal of Neurosurgery 127, no. 1 (2017): 182–188.

[198] V. Krishna, F. Sammartino, and A. Rezai, “A Review of the Current Therapies, Challenges, and Future Directions of Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Technology: Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment,” JAMA Neurology 75, no. 2 (2018): 246–254.

[199] H. Kim, J. Kim, J. Kim, S. Oh, K. Choi, and J. Yoon, “Magnetothermal-Based Non-Invasive Focused Magnetic Stimulation for Functional Recovery in Chronic Stroke Treatment,” Scientific Reports 13, no. 1 (2023): 4988.

[200] I. R. Violante, K. Alania, A. M. Cassarà, et al., “Non-Invasive Temporal Interference Electrical Stimulation of the human Hippocampus,” Nature Neuroscience 26, no. 11 (2023): 1994–2004.

[201] M. J. Wessel, E. Beanato, T. Popa, et al., “Noninvasive Theta-Burst Stimulation of the Human Striatum Enhances Striatal Activity and Motor Skill Learning,” Nature Neuroscience 26, no. 11 (2023): 2005–2016.

[202] Z. Huang, C. C. Charalambous, M. Chen, et al., “Low Intensity Focused Ultrasound Stimulation in Stroke: A Phase I Safety & Feasibility Trial,” Brain Stimulation 18, no. 1 (2025): 179–187.

[203] C. Yang, Y. Xu, Y. Du, et al., “Transcranial Temporal Interference Subthalamic Stimulation for Treating Motor Symptoms in Parkinson's Disease: A Pilot Study,” Brain Stimulation 17, no. 6 (2024): 1250–1252.

[204] J. R. Wolpaw, N. Birbaumer, D. J. McFarland, G. Pfurtscheller, and T. M. Vaughan, “Brain-Computer Interfaces for Communication and Control,” Clinical Neurophysiology 113, no. 6 (2002): 767–791.

[205] G. A. Tabot, J. F. Dammann, J. A. Berg, et al., “Restoring the Sense of Touch With a Prosthetic Hand Through a Brain Interface,” Proceedings National Academy of Science USA 110, no. 45 (2013): 18279–18284.

[206] R. P. Rao, “Towards Neural Co-processors for the Brain: Combining Decoding and Encoding in Brain-Computer Interfaces,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 55 (2019): 142–151.

[207] C. Hughes, A. Herrera, R. Gaunt, and J. Collinger, “Bidirectional Brain-Computer Interfaces,” in Handbook of Clinical Neurology (Elsevier, 2020), 163–181.

[208] M. A. Lebedev and M. A. L. Nicolelis, “Brain-Machine Interfaces: From Basic Science to Neuroprostheses and Neurorehabilitation,” Physiological Reviews 97, no. 2 (2017): 767–837.

[209] R. Y. Lim, M. Jiang, K. K. Ang, X. Lin, and C. Guan, “Brain-Computer-Brain System for Individualized Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation With Concurrent EEG Recording: A Healthy Subject Pilot Study,” in 2024 46th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) (IEEE, 2024), 1–4, https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC53108.2024.10782251.

[210] A. J. Bergquist, J. M. Clair, O. Lagerquist, C. S. Mang, Y. Okuma, and D. F. Collins, “Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation: Implications of the Electrically Evoked Sensory Volley,” European Journal of Applied Physiology 111, no. 10 (2011): 2409–2426.

[211] N. L. Opie, S. E. John, G. S. Rind, et al., “Focal Stimulation of the Sheep Motor Cortex With a Chronically Implanted Minimally Invasive Electrode Array Mounted on an Endovascular Stent,” Nature Biomedical Engineering 2, no. 12 (2018): 907–914.

[212] C. Neudorfer, K. Bhatia, A. Boutet, et al., “Endovascular Deep Brain Stimulation: Investigating the Relationship Between Vascular Structures and Deep Brain Stimulation Targets,” Brain Stimulation 13, no. 6 (2020): 1668–1677.

[213] V. A. Coenen, B. Sajonz, T. Prokop, et al., “The Dentato-rubro-thalamic Tract as the Potential Common Deep Brain Stimulation Target for Tremor of Various Origin: An Observational Case Series,” Acta Neurochirurgica 162, no. 5 (2020): 1053–1066.

[214] G. Rajah, H. Saber, R. Singh, and L. Rangel-Castilla, “Endovascular Delivery of Leads and Stentrodes and Their Applications to Deep Brain Stimulation and Neuromodulation: A Review,” Neurosurgical Focus 45, no. 2 (2018): E19.

[215] K. Brodmann, Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre Der Grosshirnrinde in Ihren Prinzipien Dargestellt Auf Grund Des Zellenbaues (Barth, 1909).

[216] E. Heming, A. Sanden, and Z. H. T. Kiss, “Designing a Somatosensory Neural Prosthesis: Percepts Evoked by Different Patterns of Thalamic Stimulation,” Journal of Neural Engineering 7, no. 6 (2010): 064001.

[217] Y. Moon, C. Yang, N. C. Veit, et al., “Noninvasive Spinal Stimulation Improves Walking in Chronic Stroke Survivors: A Proof-of-Concept Case Series,” BioMedical Engineering OnLine 23, no. 1 (2024): 38.

[218] J. B. Zimmermann and A. Jackson, “Closed-Loop Control of Spinal Cord Stimulation to Restore Hand Function After Paralysis,” Frontiers in Neuroscience 8 (2014): 87.

[219] X. L. Huang, M. Y. Wu, C. C. Wu, et al., “Neuromodulation Techniques in Poststroke Motor Impairment Recovery: Efficacy, Challenges, and Future Directions,” Tzu Chi Medical Journal 36, no. 2 (2024): 136–141.

[220] X. Li, K. B. Baker, and K. O'Laughlin, “Paired DBS and TMS Reveals Dentato-Cortical Facilitation Underlying Upper Extremity Movement in Chronic Stroke Survivors,” Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 38, no. 2 (2024): 109–121.

[221] C. Nielsen, V. Siersma, E. Ghaziani, N. Beyer, S. P. Magnusson, and C. Couppé, “Health-Related Quality of Life and Physical Function in Individuals With parkinson's Disease After a Multidisciplinary Rehabilitation Regimen—A Prospective Cohort Feasibility Study,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 20 (2020): 7668.

[222] E. Ortega-Robles, R. I. Carino-Escobar, J. Cantillo-Negrete, and O. Arias-Carrión, “Brain–Computer Interfaces in Parkinson's Disease Rehabilitation,” Biomimetics 10, no. 8 (2025): 488.

[223] H. Tayebi, S. Azadnajafabad, S. F. Maroufi, et al., “Applications of Brain-Computer Interfaces in Neurodegenerative Diseases,” Neurosurgical Review 46, no. 1 (2023): 131.

[224] E. R. Dorsey, T. Sherer, M. S. Okun, and B. R. Bloem, “The Emerging Evidence of the Parkinson Pandemic,” Journal of Parkinson's Disease 8, no. s1 (2018): S3–S8.

[225] M. J. Armstrong and M. S. Okun, “Diagnosis and Treatment of Parkinson Disease: A Review,” JAMA 323, no. 6 (2020): 548–560.

[226] S. Marceglia, M. Guidetti, I. E. Harmsen, et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation: Is It Time to Change Gears by Closing the Loop?,” Journal of Neural Engineering 18, no. 6 (2021): 061001.

[227] M. Arlotti, M. Colombo, A. Bonfanti, et al., “A New Implantable Closed-Loop Clinical Neural Interface: First Application in Parkinson's Disease,” Frontiers in Neuroscience 15 (2021): 763235.

[228] A. Schnitzler and J. Gross, “Normal and Pathological Oscillatory Communication in the Brain,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6, no. 4 (2005): 285–296.

[229] F. Stocchi, D. Bravi, A. Emmi, and A. Antonini, “Parkinson Disease Therapy: Current Strategies and Future Research Priorities,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 20, no. 12 (2024): 695–707.

[230] J. L. Busch, J. Kaplan, J. G. V. Habets, et al., “Single Threshold Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson's Disease Depends on Parameter Selection, Movement state and Controllability of Subthalamic Beta Activity,” Brain Stimulation 17, no. 1 (2024): 125–133.

[231] S. Little, A. Pogosyan, S. Neal, et al., “Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation in Advanced Parkinson Disease,” Annals of Neurology 74, no. 3 (2013): 449–457.

[232] T. Bocci, M. Prenassi, M. Arlotti, et al., “Eight-Hours Conventional Versus Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus in Parkinson's Disease,” Npj Parkinson's Disease 7, no. 1 (2021): 88.

[233] L. Caffi, L. M. Romito, C. Palmisano, et al., “Adaptive vs. Conventional Deep Brain Stimulation: One-Year Subthalamic Recordings and Clinical Monitoring in a Patient With Parkinson's Disease,” Bioengineering 11, no. 10 (2024): 990.

[234] Q. Li, K. Wang, J. Li, et al., “Adaptive vs Conventional Deep Brain Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus for Treatment of Parkinson's Disease: A Multicenter Retrospective Study,” Neuromodulation (2025): S1094–7159(25)00186–00182.

[235] Q. An, Z. Yin, R. Ma, et al., “Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease: Looking Back at the Past Decade on Motor Outcomes,” Journal of Neurology 270, no. 3 (2023): 1371–1387.

[236] G. Lio, S. Thobois, B. Ballanger, B. Lau, and P. Boulinguez, “Removing Deep Brain Stimulation Artifacts From the Electroencephalogram: Issues, Recommendations and an Open-Source Toolbox,” Clinical Neurophysiology: Official Journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology 129, no. 10 (2018): 2170–2185.

[237] J. Ansó, M. Benjaber, B. Parks, et al., “Concurrent Stimulation and Sensing in Bi-Directional Brain Interfaces: A Multi-Site Translational Experience,” Journal of Neural Engineering 19, no. 2 (2022): 026025.

[238] N. C. Swann, C. de Hemptinne, S. Miocinovic, et al., “Gamma Oscillations in the Hyperkinetic State Detected With Chronic Human Brain Recordings in Parkinson's Disease,” Journal of Neuroscience: Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 36, no. 24 (2016): 6445–6458.

[239] A. A. Kühn, D. Williams, A. Kupsch, et al., “Event-Related Beta Desynchronization in Human Subthalamic Nucleus Correlates With Motor Performance,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 127, no. pt. 4 (2004): 735–746.

[240] N. E. Crone, D. L. Miglioretti, B. Gordon, and R. P. Lesser, “Functional Mapping of Human Sensorimotor Cortex With Electrocorticographic Spectral Analysis. II. Event-Related Synchronization in the Gamma Band,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 121, no. pt. 12 (1998): 2301–2315.

[241] K. J. Miller, E. C. Leuthardt, G. Schalk, et al., “Spectral Changes in Cortical Surface Potentials During Motor Movement,” Journal of Neurology: Official Journal of Social Neuroscience 27, no. 9 (2007): 2424–2432.

[242] M. M. Turconi, S. Mezzarobba, G. Franco, et al., “BCI-Based Neuro-Rehabilitation Treatment for Parkinson's Disease: Cases Report,” TSPC2014.

[243] V. Lavermicocca, A. R. Dellomonaco, A. Tedesco, M. Notarnicola, R. Di Fede, and P. P. Battaglini, “[Neurofeedback in Parkinson's Disease: Technologies in Speech and Language Therapy],” Recenti Progressi in Medicina 109, no. 2 (2018): 130–132.

[244] T. S. de Aguiar Pettenuzzo, K. M. Estivalet, B. M. Strey, and F. Cechetti, “Brain-Computer Interface in Cognitive Rehabilitation for Individuals With Parkinson's Disease and Improvement in Occupational Performance: A Pilot Study,” Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy 29 (2025): 101433.

[245] L. Subramanian, J. V. Hindle, S. Johnston, et al., “Real-Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Neurofeedback for Treatment of Parkinson's Disease,” Journal of Neurology: Official Journal of Social Neuroscience 31, no. 45 (2011): 16309–16317.

[246] K. Buyukturkoglu, M. Rana, and S. Ruiz, “Volitional Regulation of the Supplementary Motor Area With fMRI-BCI Neurofeedback in Parkinson's Disease: A Pilot Study,” in 2013 6th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER) (IEEE, 2013), 677–681, https://doi.org/10.1109/NER.2013.6696025.

[247] M. Lamoš, M. Bočková, F. Missey, et al., “Noninvasive Temporal Interference Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus in Parkinson's Disease Reduces Beta Activity,” Movement Disorders 40, no. 6 (2025): 1051–1060.

[248] G. Darmani, H. Ramezanpour, C. Sarica, et al., “Individualized Non-Invasive Deep Brain Stimulation of the Basal Ganglia Using Transcranial Ultrasound Stimulation,” Nature Communications 16, no. 1 (2025): 2693.

[249] G. Xu, T. Ren, Y. Chen, and W. Che, “A One-Dimensional CNN-LSTM Model for Epileptic Seizure Recognition Using EEG Signal Analysis,” Frontiers in Neuroscience 14 (2020): 578126.

[250] R. D. Thijs, R. Surges, T. J. O'Brien, and J. W. Sander, “Epilepsy in Adults,” Lancet 393, no. 10172 (2019): 689–701.

[251] X. Y. Liu, W. L. Wang, M. Liu, et al., “Recent Applications of EEG-Based Brain-Computer-Interface in the Medical Field,” Military Medical Research 12 (2025): 14.

[252] L. Kuhlmann, K. Lehnertz, M. P. Richardson, B. Schelter, and H. P. Zaveri, “Seizure Prediction—Ready for a New Era,” Nature Reviews Neurology 14, no. 10 (2018): 618–630.

[253] C. E. Elger and C. Hoppe, “Diagnostic Challenges in Epilepsy: Seizure Under-Reporting and Seizure Detection,” Lancet Neurology 17, no. 3 (2018): 279–288.

[254] T. Proix, W. Truccolo, M. G. Leguia, et al., “Forecasting Seizure Risk in Adults With Focal Epilepsy: A Development and Validation Study,” Lancet Neurology 20, no. 2 (2021): 127–135.

[255] J. L. McKee, M. C. Kaufman, A. K. Gonzalez, et al., “Leveraging Electronic Medical Record-Embedded Standardised Electroencephalogram Reporting to Develop Neonatal Seizure Prediction Models: A Retrospective Cohort Study,” Lancet, Digit Health 5, no. 4 (2023): e217–e226.

[256] H. S. Nogay and H. Adeli, “Detection of Epileptic Seizure Using Pretrained Deep Convolutional Neural Network and Transfer Learning,” European Neurology 83, no. 6 (2020): 602–614.

[257] O. Faust, U. R. Acharya, H. Adeli, and A. Adeli, “Wavelet-Based EEG Processing for Computer-Aided Seizure Detection and Epilepsy Diagnosis,” Seizure: The Journal of the British Epilepsy Association 26 (2015): 56–64.

[258] Y. Tang and D. Durand, “A Tunable Support Vector Machine Assembly Classifier for Epileptic Seizure Detection,” Expert Systems with Applications 39, no. 4 (2012): 3925–3938.

[259] X. Wei, L. Zhou, Z. Chen, L. Zhang, and Y. Zhou, “Automatic Seizure Detection Using Three-Dimensional CNN Based on Multi-Channel EEG,” BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making 18, no. S5 (2018): 111.

[260] I. Ahmad, X. Wang, D. Javeed, P. Kumar, O. W. Samuel, and S. Chen, “A Hybrid Deep Learning Approach for Epileptic Seizure Detection in EEG Signals,” IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics 30, no. 2 (2025): 1019–1029.

[261] A. Burrello, L. Cavigelli, K. Schindler, L. Benini, and A. Rahimi, “Laelaps: An Energy-Efficient Seizure Detection Algorithm From Long-Term Human iEEG Recordings Without False Alarms,” in 2019 Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition (DATE) (IEEE, 2019), 752–757, https://doi.org/10.23919/DATE.2019.8715186.

[262] M. C. Tjepkema-Cloostermans, R. C. V. de Carvalho, and M. van Putten, “Deep Learning for Detection of Focal Epileptiform Discharges From Scalp EEG Recordings,” Clinical Neurophysiology: Official Publication of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology 129, no. 10 (2018): 2191–2196.

[263] Y. Zhong, Y. Wang, Z. He, et al., “Closed-Loop Wearable Ultrasound Deep Brain Stimulation System Based on EEG in Mice,” Journal of Neural Engineering 18, no. 4 (2021): 0460e8.

[264] W. P. Welch, B. Sitwat, and Y. Sogawa, “Use of Vagus Nerve Stimulator on Children With Primary Generalized Epilepsy,” Journal of Child Neurology 33, no. 7 (2018): 449–452.

[265] Y. T. Fang, Y. T. Lin, W. L. Tseng, et al., “Neuroimmunomodulation of Vagus Nerve Stimulation and the Therapeutic Implications,” Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 15 (2023): 1173987.

[266] L. D. Hachem, S. M. Wong, and G. M. Ibrahim, “The Vagus Afferent Network: Emerging Role in Translational Connectomics,” Neurosurgical Focus 45, no. 3 (2018): E2.

[267] R. S. Fisher, P. Afra, M. Macken, et al., “Automatic Vagus Nerve Stimulation Triggered by Ictal Tachycardia: Clinical Outcomes and Device Performance–The U.S. E-37 Trial,” Neuromodulation: Journal of International Neuromodulation Society 19, no. 2 (2016): 188–195.

[268] P. Boon, K. Vonck, K. van Rijckevorsel, et al., “A Prospective, Multicenter Study of Cardiac-Based Seizure Detection to Activate Vagus Nerve Stimulation,” Seizure: The Journal of the British Epilepsy Association 32 (2015): 52–61.

[269] C. M. DeGiorgio, S. C. Schachter, A. Handforth, et al., “Prospective Long-Term Study of Vagus Nerve Stimulation for the Treatment of Refractory Seizures,” Epilepsia 41, no. 9 (2000): 1195–1200.

[270] N. M. Warsi, H. Yan, H. Suresh, et al., “The Anterior and Centromedian Thalamus: Anatomy, Function, and Dysfunction in Epilepsy,” Epilepsy Research 182 (2022): 106913.

[271] W. Grodd, V. J. Kumar, A. Schüz, T. Lindig, and K. Scheffler, “The Anterior and Medial Thalamic Nuclei and the Human Limbic System: Tracing the Structural Connectivity Using Diffusion-Weighted Imaging,” Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (2020): 10957.

[272] J. P. Aggleton, S. M. O'Mara, S. D. Vann, N. F. Wright, M. Tsanov, and J. T. Erichsen, “Hippocampal-Anterior Thalamic Pathways for Memory: Uncovering a Network of Direct and Indirect Actions,” European Journal of Neuroscience 31, no. 12 (2010): 2292–2307.

[273] T. A. M. Bouwens van der Vlis, O. Schijns, F. Schaper, et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation of the Anterior Nucleus of the Thalamus for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy,” Neurosurgical Review 42, no. 2 (2019): 287–296.

[274] V. Salanova, T. Witt, R. Worth, et al., “Long-Term Efficacy and Safety of Thalamic Stimulation for Drug-Resistant Partial Epilepsy,” Neurology 84, no. 10 (2015): 1017–1025.

[275] A. Ilyas, D. Pizarro, A. K. Romeo, K. O. Riley, and S. Pati, “The Centromedian Nucleus: Anatomy, Physiology, and Clinical Implications,” Journal of Clinical Neuroscience: Official Journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 63 (2019): 1–7.

[276] R. S. Fisher, “Deep Brain Stimulation of Thalamus for Epilepsy,” Neurobiology of Disease 179 (2023): 106045.

[277] R. S. Fisher, S. Uematsu, G. L. Krauss, et al., “Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study of Centromedian Thalamic Stimulation in Treatment of Intractable Seizures,” Epilepsia 33, no. 5 (1992): 841–851.

[278] F. Velasco, M. Velasco, F. Jiménez, et al., “Predictors in the Treatment of Difficult-to-Control Seizures by Electrical Stimulation of the Centromedian Thalamic Nucleus,” Neurosurgery 47, no. 2 (2000): 295–304, discussion 304–305.

[279] S. Agashe, D. Burkholder, K. Starnes, et al., “Centromedian Nucleus of the Thalamus Deep Brain Stimulation for Genetic Generalized Epilepsy: A Case Report and Review of Literature,” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 16 (2022): 858413.

[280] M. Ravan, S. Sabesan, and O. D'Cruz, “On Quantitative Biomarkers of VNS Therapy Using EEG and ECG Signals,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 64, no. 2 (2017): 419–428.

[281] E. Krook-Magnuson, J. N. Gelinas, I. Soltesz, and G. Buzsáki, “Neuroelectronics and Biooptics: Closed-Loop Technologies in Neurological Disorders,” JAMA Neurology 72, no. 7 (2015): 823–829.

[282] E. Krook-Magnuson, C. Armstrong, M. Oijala, and I. Soltesz, “On-Demand Optogenetic Control of Spontaneous Seizures in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy,” Nature Communications 4 (2013): 1376.

[283] M. J. Morrell, “Responsive Cortical Stimulation for the Treatment of Medically Intractable Partial Epilepsy,” Neurology 77, no. 13 (2011): 1295–1304.

[284] G. M. Winston, S. Guadix, M. T. Lavieri, et al., “Closed-Loop Vagal Nerve Stimulation for Intractable Epilepsy: A Single-Center Experience,” Seizure: The Journal of the British Epilepsy Association 88 (2021): 95–101.

[285] D. N. Anderson, C. M. Charlebois, E. H. Smith, et al., “Closed-Loop Stimulation in Periods With Less Epileptiform Activity Drives Improved Epilepsy Outcomes,” Brain: A Journal Of Neurology 147, no. 2 (2024): 521–531.

[286] H. C. Skrehot, D. J. Englot, and Z. Haneef, “Neuro-Stimulation in Focal Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Epilepsy & Behavior: E&B 142 (2023): 109182.

[287] Z. Haneef and H. C. Skrehot, “Neurostimulation in Generalized Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Epilepsia 64, no. 4 (2023): 811–820.

[288] Z. Lin, L. Meng, J. Zou, et al., “Non-Invasive Ultrasonic Neuromodulation of Neuronal Excitability for Treatment of Epilepsy,” Theranostics 10, no. 12 (2020): 5514–5526.

[289] J. Zou, S. Yi, L. Niu, et al., “Neuroprotective Effect of Ultrasound Neuromodulation on Kainic Acid-Induced Epilepsy in Mice,” IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control 68, no. 9 (2021): 3006–3016.

[290] J. Zou, L. Meng, Z. Lin, et al., “Ultrasound Neuromodulation Inhibits Seizures in Acute Epileptic Monkeys,” Iscience 23, no. 5 (2020): 101066.

[291] C. C. Lee, C. C. Chou, F. J. Hsiao, et al., “Pilot Study of Focused Ultrasound for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy,” Epilepsia 63, no. 1 (2022): 162–175.

[292] S. G. Chen, C. H. Tsai, C. J. Lin, et al., “Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Pulsation Suppresses Pentylenetetrazol Induced Epilepsy in Vivo,” Brain Stimulation 13, no. 1 (2020): 35–46.

[293] J. Kubanek, J. Brown, P. Ye, K. B. Pauly, T. Moore, and W. Newsome, “Remote, Brain Region-Specific Control of Choice Behavior With Ultrasonic Waves,” Science Advances 6, no. 21 (2020): eaaz4193.

[294] T. Choi, M. Koo, J. Joo, T. Kim, Y. M. Shon, and J. Park, “Bidirectional Neuronal Control of Epileptiform Activity by Repetitive Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Stimulations,” Advanced Science 11, no. 2 (2024): e2302404.

[295] J. M. Stern, N. M. Spivak, S. A. Becerra, et al., “Safety of Focused Ultrasound Neuromodulation in Humans With Temporal Lobe Epilepsy,” Brain Stimulation 14, no. 4 (2021): 1022–1031.

[296] H. Yang, Y. Yuan, X. Wang, and X. Li, “Closed-Loop Transcranial Ultrasound Stimulation for Real-Time Non-Invasive Neuromodulation in Vivo,” Frontiers in Neuroscience 14 (2020): 445.

[297] J. Zou, H. Chen, X. Chen, et al., “Noninvasive Closed-Loop Acoustic Brain-Computer Interface for Seizure Control,” Theranostics 14, no. 15 (2024): 5965–5981.

[298] L. Peng, Z. Zhang, Q. Li, Z. Song, C. Yan, and H. Ling, “Unveiling the Multifaceted Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Drugs of Alzheimer's Disease: A Comprehensive Review,” Heliyon 10, no. 20 (2024): e39217.

[299] J. J. Jalbert, L. A. Daiello, and K. L. Lapane, “Dementia of the Alzheimer Type,” Epidemiologic Reviews 30 (2008): 15–34.

[300] A. D. International and M. University, “World Alzheimer Report 2021: Journey Through the Diagnosis of Dementia,” published September 21, 2021, https://www.alzint.org/resource/world-alzheimer-report-2021/.

[301] B. Dubois, H. H. Feldman, C. Jacova, et al., “Advancing Research Diagnostic Criteria for Alzheimer's Disease: The IWG-2 Criteria,” Lancet Neurology 13, no. 6 (2014): 614–629.

[302] J. Jeong, “EEG Dynamics in Patients With Alzheimer's Disease,” Clinical Neurophysiology: Official Journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology 115, no. 7 (2004): 1490–1505.

[303] C. Micanovic and S. Pal, “The Diagnostic Utility of EEG in Early-Onset Dementia: A Systematic Review of the Literature With Narrative Analysis,” Journal of Neural Transmission 121, no. 1 (2014): 59–69.

[304] A. Fukushima, R. Morooka, H. Tanaka, H. Kentaro, A. Tugawa, and H. Hanyu, “Classification of Dementia Type Using the Brain-Computer Interface,” Artificial Life and Robotics 26, no. 2 (2021): 216–221.

[305] S. H. Hojjati, A. Ebrahimzadeh, A. Khazaee, A. Babajani-Feremi, and Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative, “Predicting Conversion From MCI to AD by Integrating Rs-fMRI and Structural MRI,” Computers in Biology and Medicine 102 (2018): 30–39.

[306] C. Ieracitano, N. Mammone, A. Bramanti, A. Hussain, and F. C. Morabito, “A Convolutional Neural Network Approach for Classification of Dementia Stages Based on 2D-Spectral Representation of EEG Recordings,” Neurocomputing 323 (2019): 96–107.

[307] H. Li, X. Yang, and L. Gong, “Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy for Identifying Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review,” Frontiers in Neurology 16 (2025): 1578375.

[308] A. M. Chiarelli, D. Perpetuini, P. Croce, et al., “Evidence of Neurovascular Un-Coupling in Mild Alzheimer's Disease Through Multimodal EEG-fNIRS and Multivariate Analysis of Resting-State Data,” Biomedicines 9, no. 4 (2021): 337.

[309] N. Sefati, T. Esmaeilpour, V. Salari, et al., “Monitoring Alzheimer's Disease via Ultraweak Photon Emission,” Iscience 27, no. 1 (2024): 108744.

[310] D. Galvin-McLaughlin, D. Klee, and T. Memmott, “Methodology and Preliminary Data on Feasibility of a Neurofeedback Protocol to Improve Visual Attention to Letters in Mild Alzheimer's Disease,” Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 28 (2022): 100950.

[311] Y. Lin, I. W. Shu, and F. Singh, “Frontal Gamma as a Marker of Effective Training During Neurofeedback to Improve Memory in Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment,” in 2023 11th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER) (IEEE, 2023), 1–4, https://doi.org/10.1109/NER52421.2023.10123807.

[312] I. Lanni, G. Chiacchierini, C. Papagno, V. Santangelo, and P. Campolongo, “Treating Alzheimer's Disease With Brain Stimulation: From Preclinical Models to Non-Invasive Stimulation in Humans,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 165 (2024): 105831.

[313] J. J. Im, H. Jeong, M. Bikson, et al., “Effects of 6-Month At-Home Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Cognition and Cerebral Glucose Metabolism in Alzheimer's Disease,” Brain Stimulation 12, no. 5 (2019): 1222–1228.

[314] W. Jiang, Z. Wu, L. Wen, et al., “The Efficacy of High- or Low-Frequency Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Alzheimer's Disease Patients With Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia,” Advances in Therapy 39, no. 1 (2022): 286–295.

[315] F. Zhang, Y. Meng, and W. Zhang, “Deep Brain Stimulation for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: A Safer and More Effective Strategy,” Neural Regeneration Research 21, no. 5 (2026): 1899–1909.

[316] J. Germann, R. S. C. Amaral, J. Tomaszczyk, et al., “Biomarker Changes Associated With fornix Deep Brain Stimulation in Alzheimer's Disease,” Alzheimer's Dement: Journal of Alzheimer's Association 21, no. 6 (2025): e70394.

[317] C. J. Swanson, Y. Zhang, S. Dhadda, et al., “A Randomized, Double-Blind, Phase 2b Proof-of-Concept Clinical Trial in Early Alzheimer's Disease With Lecanemab, an Anti-aβ Protofibril Antibody,” Alzheimer's Research & Therapy 13, no. 1 (2021): 80.

[318] J. Sevigny, P. Chiao, T. Bussière, et al., “The Antibody Aducanumab Reduces Aβ Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease,” Nature 537, no. 7618 (2016): 50–56.

[319] C. W. Howard, M. Reich, L. Luo, et al., “Cognitive Outcomes of Deep Brain Stimulation Depend on Age and Hippocampal Connectivity in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's Disease,” Alzheimer's Dement 21, no. 8 (2025): e70498.

[320] D. A. Malone, D. D. Dougherty, A. R. Rezai, et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation of the Ventral Capsule/Ventral Striatum for Treatment-Resistant Depression,” Biological Psychiatry 65, no. 4 (2009): 267–275.

[321] I. O. Bergfeld, M. Mantione, M. L. C. Hoogendoorn, et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation of the Ventral Anterior Limb of the Internal Capsule for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA Psychiatry 73, no. 5 (2016): 456–464.

[322] P. Riva-Posse, K. S. Choi, P. E. Holtzheimer, et al., “A Connectomic Approach for Subcallosal Cingulate Deep Brain Stimulation Surgery: Prospective Targeting in Treatment-Resistant Depression,” Molecular Psychiatry 23, no. 4 (2018): 843–849.

[323] A. M. Lozano, P. Giacobbe, C. Hamani, et al., “A Multicenter Pilot Study of Subcallosal Cingulate Area Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression,” Journal of Neurosurgery 116, no. 2 (2012): 315–322.

[324] D. D. Dougherty, A. R. Rezai, L. L. Carpenter, et al., “A Randomized Sham-Controlled Trial of Deep Brain Stimulation of the Ventral Capsule/Ventral Striatum for Chronic Treatment-Resistant Depression,” Biological Psychiatry 78, no. 4 (2015): 240–248.

[325] P. E. Holtzheimer, M. M. Husain, S. H. Lisanby, et al., “Subcallosal Cingulate Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Multisite, Randomised, Sham-Controlled Trial,” Lancet, Psychiatry 4, no. 11 (2017): 839–849.

[326] A. S. Widge, “Closed-Loop Deep Brain Stimulation for Psychiatric Disorders,” Harvard Review of Psychiatry 31, no. 3 (2023): 162–171.

[327] K. W. Scangos, G. S. Makhoul, L. P. Sugrue, E. F. Chang, and A. D. Krystal, “State-Dependent Responses to Intracranial Brain Stimulation in a Patient With Depression,” Nature Medicine 27, no. 2 (2021): 229–231.

[328] K. W. Scangos, A. N. Khambhati, P. M. Daly, et al., “Closed-Loop Neuromodulation in an Individual With Treatment-Resistant Depression,” Nature Medicine 27, no. 10 (2021): 1696–1700.

[329] S. A. Sheth, K. R. Bijanki, B. Metzger, et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation for Depression Informed by Intracranial Recordings,” Biological Psychiatry 92, no. 3 (2022): 246–251.

[330] A. A. Fingelkurts and A. A. Fingelkurts, “Altered Structure of Dynamic Electroencephalogram Oscillatory Pattern in Major Depression,” Biological Psychiatry 77, no. 12 (2015): 1050–1060.

[331] T. Schwippel, F. Pupillo, Z. Feldman, et al., “Closed-Loop Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation for the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder: An Open-Label Pilot Study,” American Journal of Psychiatry 181, no. 9 (2024): 842–845.

[332] M. Orban, M. Elsamanty, K. Guo, S. Zhang, and H. Yang, “A Review of Brain Activity and EEG-Based Brain–Computer Interfaces for Rehabilitation Application,” Bioengineering 9, no. 12 (2022): 768.

[333] P. D. Ganzer, S. C. Colachis, M. A. Schwemmer, et al., “Restoring the Sense of Touch Using a Sensorimotor Demultiplexing Neural Interface,” Cell 181, no. 4 (2020): 763–773.e12.

[334] S. L. Metzger, K. T. Littlejohn, A. B. Silva, et al., “A High-Performance Neuroprosthesis for Speech Decoding and Avatar Control,” Nature 620, no. 7976 (2023): 1037–1046.

[335] J. D. Sitt, J. R. King, and I. El Karoui, “Large Scale Screening of Neural Signatures of Consciousness in Patients in a Vegetative or Minimally Conscious State,” Brain: A Journal of Neurology 137, no. pt. 8 (2014): 2258–2270.

[336] Q. He, J. He, Y. Yang, and J. Zhao, “Brain-Computer Interfaces in Disorders of Consciousness,” Neuroscience Bulletin 39, no. 2 (2023): 348–352.

[337] N. Qin, Q. Cao, F. Li, W. Wang, X. Peng, and L. Wang, “A Nomogram Based on Quantitative EEG to Predict the Prognosis of Nontraumatic Coma Patients in the Neuro-Intensive Care Unit,” Intensive & Critical Care Nursing 83 (2024): 103618.

[338] J. Pan, Q. Xie, Y. He, et al., “Detecting Awareness in Patients With Disorders of Consciousness Using a Hybrid Brain-Computer Interface,” Journal of Neural Engineering 11, no. 5 (2014): 56007.

[339] Y. H. Nho, C. E. Rolle, U. Topalovic, et al., “Responsive Deep Brain Stimulation Guided by Ventral Striatal Electrophysiology of Obsession Durably Ameliorates Compulsion,” Neuron 112, no. 1 (2024): 73–83.e4.

[340] R. S. Shivacharan, C. E. Rolle, D. A. N. Barbosa, et al., “Pilot Study of Responsive Nucleus Accumbens Deep Brain Stimulation for Loss-of-Control Eating,” Nature Medicine 28, no. 9 (2022): 1791–1796.

[341] J. L. Gill, J. A. Schneiders, M. Stangl, et al., “A Pilot Study of Closed-Loop Neuromodulation for Treatment-Resistant Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 2997.

[342] E. Waisberg, J. Ong, and A. G. Lee, “Ethical Considerations of Neuralink and Brain-Computer Interfaces,” Annals of Biomedical Engineering 52, no. 8 (2024): 1937–1939.

[343] E. C. Gordon and A. K. Seth, “Ethical Considerations for the Use of Brain–Computer Interfaces for Cognitive Enhancement,” PLoS Biology 22, no. 10 (2024): e3002899.

[344] E. Klein, T. Brown, M. Sample, A. R. Truitt, and S. Goering, “Engineering the Brain: Ethical Issues and the Introduction of Neural Devices,” Hastings Center Report 45, no. 6 (2015): 26–35.

[345] S. Burwell, M. Sample, and E. Racine, “Ethical Aspects of Brain Computer Interfaces: A Scoping Review,” BMC Medical Ethics 18 (2017): 60.

[346] W. Glannon, “Neuromodulation, Agency and Autonomy,” Brain Topography 27, no. 1 (2014): 46–54.

[347] A. Fenton and S. Alpert, “Extending Our View on Using BCIs for Locked-in Syndrome,” Neuroethics 1, no. 2 (2008): 119–132.

[348] C. Gerardi and C. Xinaris, “Beyond Human Limits: The Ethical, Social, and Regulatory Implications of Human Enhancement,” Frontiers in Medicine 12 (2025): 1595213.

[349] P. Jaszczuk, D. Bratelj, C. Capone, et al., “Advances in Neuromodulation and Digital Brain-Spinal Cord Interfaces for Spinal Cord Injury,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 26, no. 13 (2025): 6021.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). MedComm published by Sichuan International Medical Exchange & Promotion Association (SCIMEA) and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.