Experimental investigation of sustainable structural concrete incorporating completely recycled fine aggregate (CRFA): from material to structural levels

Abstract

To mitigate the shortage of river sand and promote the reuse of construction waste, this study comprehensively evaluates the applicability of completely recycled fine aggregate (CRFA), produced by crushing concrete waste completely into fine aggregates, in structural concrete from the material to structural levels. Mechanical properties, durability, shrinkage, microstructure, and structural performance of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) with CRFA as the sole fine aggregate were tested and compared to natural aggregate concrete (NAC) of the same strength grade. The results indicate that RAC exhibits comparable strength and elastic modulus to NAC at 28 days, although its long-term compressive strength is 12% lower. RAC demonstrates superior freeze–thaw resistance but reduced resistance to carbonation and chloride ion penetration due to a higher percentage of large pores, as observed via mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). RAC also shows lower early-age autogenous shrinkage but higher long-term drying shrinkage than NAC. Structural testing under bending, axial, and eccentric compression reveals that RAC performs similarly to NAC and can be conservatively predicted by current design codes for NAC, with the ratios between experimental and predicted values exceeding 1.08. Furthermore, with 18.8% and 10.5% reductions in cost and carbon emissions, respectively, CRFA is an economical and sustainable alternative to river sand in structural applications.

Keywords

Recycled fine aggregate / Mechanical properties / Durability / Shrinkage / Structural performance

References

[1] Wilson, D. C., Rodic, L., Modak, P., Soos, R., Carpintero, A., Velis, K., et al. (2015). Global waste management outlook. UNEP.

[2] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2016). Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2014 Fact Sheet Assessing Trends in Material Generation, Recycling, Composting, Combustion with Energy Recovery and Landfilling in the United States.

[3] HuangB, WangX, KuaH, GengY, BleischwitzR, RenJ. Construction and demolition waste management in China through the 3R principle. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2018, 129: 36-44

[4] Fischer, C., Werge, M., & Reichel, A. (2009). EU as a Recycling Society. Present recycling levels of Municipal Waste and Construction & Demolition Waste in the EU.

[5] Böhmer, S., Moser, G., Neubauer, C., Peltoniemi, M., Schachermayer, E., Tesar, M., et al. (2008). Aggregates case study, Final report. Contract no 150787-2007 F1SC-AT.

[6] CoelhoA, de BritoJ. Economic viability analysis of a construction and demolition waste recycling plant in Portugal – part I: Location, materials, technology and economic analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2013, 39: 338-352

[7] BendixenM, BestJ, HackneyC, IversenLL. Time is running out for sand. Nature, 2019, 571: 29-31

[8] ZhaoM-Z, WangY-Y, LehmanDE, GengY, RoederCW. Response and modeling of axially-loaded concrete-filled steel columns with recycled coarse and fine aggregate. Engineering Structures, 2021, 234, ArticleID: 111733

[9] Xiao, J., Deng, Q., Hou, M., Shen, J., & Gencel, O. (2023). Where are demolition wastes going: Reflection and analysis of the February 6, 2023 earthquake disaster in Turkey. Low-Carbon Materials and Green Construction, 1, 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44242-023-00017-3

[10] Prashanth, K., Lohith, N. R., M, V., & Basutkar, S. M. (2024). Properties of fiber incorporated concrete blocks manufactured using recycled aggregates. Low-carbon Materials and Green Construction, 2(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44242-024-00034-w.

[11] Bayraktar, O. Y., Salem Taher Eshtewı, S., Benli, A., Kaplan, G., Toklu, K., & Gunek, F. (2021). The impact of RCA and fly ash on the mechanical and durability properties of polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete exposed to freeze-thaw cycles and MgSO₄ with ANN modeling. Construction and Building Materials, 313, 125508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125508.

[12] Algourdin, N., Bideux, C., Mesticou, Z., & Si Larbi, A. (2024). High temperature performance of recycled fine concrete. Low-carbon Materials and Green Construction, 2(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44242-024-00050-w

[13] Salgado, F. de A., & Silva, F. de A. (2022). Recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste towards an application on structural concrete: A review. Journal of Building Engineering, 52, 104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104452.

[14] Hansen, T. C. (1992). Recycling of demolished concrete and masonry. CRC Press.

[15] TavakoliM, SoroushianP. Strengths of recycled aggregate concrete made using field-demolished concrete as aggregate. Materials Journal, 1996, 93: 178-181

[16] LimbachiyaM, LeelawatT, DhirR. Use of recycled concrete aggregate in high-strength concrete. Materials and Structures, 2000, 33: 574-580

[17] MaZ, TangQ, YangD, BaG. Durability Studies on the Recycled Aggregate Concrete in China over the Past Decade: A Review. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2019, 2019: 4073130

[18] ZegaCJ, MaioÁAD. Use of recycled fine aggregate in concretes with durable requirements. Waste Management, 2011, 31: 2336-2340

[19] NedeljkovićM, VisserJ, ŠavijaB, ValckeS, SchlangenE. Use of fine recycled concrete aggregates in concrete: A critical review. Journal of Building Engineering, 2021, 38, ArticleID: 102196

[20] BayraktarOY, KaplanG, BenliA. The effect of recycled fine aggregates treated as washed, less washed and unwashed on the mechanical and durability characteristics of concrete under MgSO4 and freeze-thaw cycles. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 48, ArticleID: 103924

[21] BenliA, BayraktarOY, KoksalF, KaplanG. Sustainable use of recycled fine aggregates in steel fiber-reinforced concrete: Fresh, flexural, mechanical and durability characteristics. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 97, ArticleID: 110745

[22] BayraktarOY, KaplanG, ShiJ, BenliA, BodurB, TurkogluM. The effect of steel fiber aspect-ratio and content on the fresh, flexural, and mechanical performance of concrete made with recycled fine aggregate. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 368, ArticleID: 130497

[23] GencelO, BalciB, BayraktarOY, NodehiM, SarıA, KaplanG, HekimoğluG, GholampourA, BenliA, OzbakkalogluT. The effect of limestone and bottom ash sand with recycled fine aggregate in foam concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 54, ArticleID: 104689

[24] KhatibJM. Properties of concrete incorporating fine recycled aggregate. Cement and Concrete Research, 2005, 35: 763-769

[25] KouS-C, PoonC-S. Properties of concrete prepared with crushed fine stone, furnace bottom ash and fine recycled aggregate as fine aggregates. Construction and Building Materials, 2009, 23: 2877-2886

[26] KirthikaSK, SinghSK. Durability studies on recycled fine aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 250, ArticleID: 118850

[27] JuM, ParkK, ParkW-J. Mechanical behavior of recycled fine aggregate concrete with high slump property in normal-and high-strength, International Journal of Concrete. Structures and Materials, 2019, 13: 1-13

[28] KumarR, GurramSCB, MinochaAK. Influence of recycled fine aggregate on microstructure and hardened properties of concrete. Magazine of Concrete Research, 2017, 69: 1288-1295

[29] EvangelistaL, De BritoJ. Mechanical behaviour of concrete made with fine recycled concrete aggregates. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2007, 29: 397-401

[30] ChinzorigtG, LimMK, YuM, LeeH, EnkboldO, ChoiD. Strength, shrinkage and creep and durability aspects of concrete including CO2 treated recycled fine aggregate. Cement and Concrete Research, 2020, 136, ArticleID: 106062

[31] Yang, Y., Liang, S., Mo, H., & Chen, Y. (2011). Method for Treating and Regenerating Reuse Building Waste. (China Patent CN101099974B). IP China.

[32] YangY, ChenB, SuY, ChenQ, LiZ, GuoW, WangH. Concrete mix design for completely recycled fine aggregate by modified packing density method. Materials, 2020, 13: 3535

[33] FanC C, HuangR, HwangH, ChaoS J. The Effects of Different Fine Recycled Concrete Aggregates on the Properties of Mortar. Materials, 2015, 8: 2658-2672

[34] FanC-C, HuangR, HwangH, ChaoS-J. Properties of concrete incorporating fine recycled aggregates from crushed concrete wastes. Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 112: 708-715

[35] YangY, ChenB, ZengW, LiY, ChenQ, GuoW, WangH, ChenY. Utilization of completely recycled fine aggregate for preparation of lightweight concrete partition panels, International Journal of Concrete. Structures and Materials, 2021, 15: 1-11

[36] Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China. (2023). Common Portland Cement (GB175–2023 ). Standards Press of China.

[37] Chen, Q. (2018). Research on Pilot Production of Recycled Total-fine Aggregate by Waste Concrete and Its Application in Concrete (Master Thesis). South University of Technology, China.

[38] Zheng, Z. (2014). Research on Production of Recycled Total-fine Aggregate and Its Application in Mortar and Concrete (Master Thesis). South University of Technology, China.

[39] Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China. (2010). Recycled fine aggregate for concrete and mortar (GB/T 25176–2010 ). Standards Press of China.

[40] Zeng, Y., Lu, G., Zhao, L., & Li, Q. (2011). Study on the Influence of Particle Shaping on Water Demand and Strength of Recycled Mortars. Journal of Shenyang Jianzhu University(Natural Science), 2. https://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFD2011&filename=SYJZ201102017&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=UQI6lHZY4eSYASHq98_0CFSKwT8Jg2aPRy23fjepV0dF8ovgluxLNAGjbcziO8hX.

[41] China Building Industry Press. (2011). Specification for mix proportion design of ordinary concrete (JGJ 55–2011). China Architecture & Building Press.

[42] Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Construction of the People’s Republic of China. (2015). Code for design of concrete structures (GB 50010–2015). China Architecture & Building Press.

[43] Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Construction of the People’s Republic of China. (2019). Standard for test methods of concrete physical and mechanical properties (GB/T 50081–2019). China Architecture & Building Press.

[44] Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Construction of the People’s Republic of China. (2009). Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete (GB/T 50082–2009). China Architecture & Building Press.

[45] Beijing Physical and Chemical Analysis and Testing Center. (2008). Pore size distribution and porosity of solid materials by mercury porosimetry and gas adsorption-Part 1: Mercury porosimetry (GB/T 21650.1–2008). Standards Press of China.

[46] China Academy of Building Research. (2012). Standard for test method of concrete structures (GB/T 50152–2012). China Architecture & Building Press.

[47] ArıotaogluN, GirginZC, ArıotaogluE. Evaluation of ratio between splitting tensile strength and compressive strength for concretes up to 120 MPa and its application in strength criterion. ACI Materials Journal, 2006, 103: 18-24

[48] ShafighP, JumaatMZ, MahmudHB, HamidNAA. Lightweight concrete made from crushed oil palm shell: Tensile strength and effect of initial curing on compressive strength. Construction and Building Materials, 2012, 27: 252-258

[49] BogasJA, de BritoJ, RamosD. Freeze–thaw resistance of concrete produced with fine recycled concrete aggregates. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 115: 294-306

[50] ZhengX, WangY, ZhangS, XuF, ZhuX, JiangX, ZhouL, ShenY, ChenQ, YanZ, ZhaoW, ZhuH, ZhangY. Research progress of the thermophysical and mechanical properties of concrete subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 330, ArticleID: 127254

[51] EvangelistaL, de BritoJ. Durability performance of concrete made with fine recycled concrete aggregates. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2010, 32: 9-14

[52] PedroD, de BritoJ, EvangelistaL. Structural concrete with simultaneous incorporation of fine and coarse recycled concrete aggregates: Mechanical, durability and long-term properties. Construction and Building Materials, 2017, 154: 294-309

[53] Meddah, M. S., & Sato, R. (2010). Effect of Curing Methods on Autogenous Shrinkage and Self-Induced Stress of High-Performance Concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 107(1).

[54] Gonzalez-CorominasA, EtxeberriaM. Effects of using recycled concrete aggregates on the shrinkage of high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 115: 32-41

[55] DelsauteB, StaquetS. Development of strain-induced stresses in early age concrete composed of recycled gravel or sand. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 2019, 17: 319-334

[56] MaoY, LiuJ, ShiC. Autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage of recycled aggregate concrete: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 295, ArticleID: 126435

[57] ZhangH, WangY, LehmanDE, GengY, KuderK. Time-dependent drying shrinkage model for concrete with coarse and fine recycled aggregate. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2020, 105, ArticleID: 103426

[58] Yang, H., Li, Y., & Ji, C. (2022). Analysis of CO₂ Emissions from Low Strength Recycled Concrete. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2186, 012009. IOP Publishing.

[59] LuoWJ, MaXC, MengCY, XuLJ, TsouJY, YangSL, MaoZC. Carbon emission modeling and analysis of building materialization process. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2020, 531, ArticleID: 012049

[60] Lei, B., Yu, L., Chen, Z., Yang, W., Deng, C., & Tang, Z. (2022). Carbon Emission Evaluation of Recycled Fine Aggregate Concrete Based on Life Cycle Assessment. Sustainability, 14(21). https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114448.

[61] LiuH, WangY, ZhuC, WuY, LiuC, HeC, YaoY, WangY, BaiG. Design of 3D printed concrete masonry for wall structures: Mechanical behavior and strength calculation methods under various loads. Engineering Structures, 2025, 325, ArticleID: 119374

[62] LiuC, LiangZ, LiuH, WuY, ZhangY, BaiG. Seismic performance of 3D printed reinforced concrete walls: Experimental study and numerical simulation. Engineering Structures, 2025, 333, ArticleID: 120176

Funding

Guangdong Province Public Welfare Research and Capacity Building Project (2014B020216001)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)